<p>The Oklahoma City National Memorial is a memorial in the United States that honors the victims, survivors, rescuers, and all who were affected by the Oklahoma City bombing on April 19, 1995. The memorial is located in downtown Oklahoma City on the former site of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, which was damaged in the 1995 bombing. This building was located on NW 5th Street between N. Robinson Avenue and N. Harvey Avenue.</p><br>
<p>The National Memorial was authorized on October 9, 1997, by President Bill Clinton&#39;s signing of the Oklahoma City National Memorial Act of 1997. It was administratively listed on the National Register of Historic Places the same day. The memorial is administered by Oklahoma City National Memorial Foundation, with National Park Service staff to help interpret the memorial for visitors. The National Memorial Museum and the Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism are components housed in the former Journal Record Building on the north side of the memorial grounds.</p><br>
<p>The memorial was formally dedicated on April 19, 2000: the fifth anniversary of the bombing. The museum was dedicated and opened the following year on February 19.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>On April 19, 1995, Timothy McVeigh parked a Ryder rental truck filled with explosives in front of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building. The resulting explosion killed 168 people and destroyed the entire north face of the building.</p><br>
<p>Months after the attack, Mayor Ron Norick appointed a task force to look into a creation of a permanent memorial where the Murrah building once stood. The Task Force called for a symbolic outdoor memorial, a Memorial Museum, and for creation of Oklahoma City National Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism. Six hundred and twenty four designs were submitted for the memorial and on July 1997 a design by Butzer Design Partnership, which consists of husband and wife Hans and Torrey Butzer, was chosen.</p><br>
<p>On October 1997, President Bill Clinton signed law creating the Oklahoma City National Memorial as a unit of the National Park Service to be operated by the Oklahoma City National Memorial Trust. The total cost of the memorial was $29.1 million; $10 million for the Outdoor Symbolic Memorial, $7 million for the Memorial Museum, $5 million for the Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism and the rest for other costs. The federal government appropriated $5 million for construction with the state of Oklahoma matching that amount. More than $17 million in private donations was raised.</p><br>
<p>On April 19, 2000 the fifth anniversary of the attack, the Outdoor Symbolic Memorial was dedicated. On February 19, 2001 the Memorial Museum was dedicated. The Oklahoma City National Memorial since its opening has seen over 4.4 million visitors to the Outdoor Symbolic Memorial and 1.6 million visitors to the Memorial Museum. The Memorial has an average of 350,000 visitors per year.</p><br>
<h2>Memorial features</h2><br>
<p>The Outdoor Symbolic Memorial consists of the following segments on 3.3 acres (13,000 m); it can be visited 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.</p><br>
<p>The Gates of Time: Monumental twin bronze gates frame the moment of destruction – 9:02 – and mark the formal entrances to the Outdoor Memorial. 9:01, found on the eastern gate, represents the last moments of peace, while its opposite on the western gate, 9:03, represents the first moments of recovery. Both time stamps are inscribed on the interior of the monument, facing each other and the Reflecting Pool.</p><br>
<p>We come here to remember</p><br>
<p>Those who were killed, those who survived and those changed forever.</p><br>
<p>May all who leave here know the impact of violence.</p><br>
<p>May this memorial offer comfort, strength, peace, hope and serenity.</p><br>
<p>Reflecting Pool: A thin layer of water flows over polished black granite to form the pool, which runs east to west down the center of the Memorial (also see reflecting pool) on what was once Fifth Street. Although the pool is flowing, visitors are able to see a mirror image of themselves in the water. Visitors seeing their reflections are said to be seeing "someone changed forever by what happened here."</p><br>
<p>Field of Empty Chairs: 168 empty chairs hand-crafted from glass, bronze, and stone represent those who lost their lives, with a name etched in the glass base of each. They sit on the site where the Murrah Building once stood. The chairs represent the empty chairs at the dinner tables of the victims families. The chairs are arranged in nine rows to symbolize the nine floors of the building; each persons chair is on the row (or the floor) on which the person worked or was located when the bomb went off. The chairs are also grouped according to the blast pattern, with the most chairs nearest the most heavily damaged portion of the building. The westernmost column of five chairs represents the five people who died but were not in the Murrah Building (two in the Water Resources Board building, one in the Athenian Building, one outside near the building, and one rescuer). The 19 smaller chairs represent the children killed in the bombing. Three unborn children died along with their mothers, and they are listed on their mothers chairs beneath their mothers names.</p><br>
<p>Survivors Wall: The only remaining original portions of the Murrah Building are the north and east walls, known as the Survivors Wall. The Survivors&#39; Wall includes several panels of granite salvaged from the Murrah Building itself, inscribed with the names of more than 600 survivors from the building and the surrounding area, many of whom were injured in the blast.</p><br>
<p>The Survivor Tree: An American elm on the north side of the Memorial, this was the only shade tree in the parking lot across the street from the Murrah Building. Commuters arrived early to get one of the shady parking spots provided by its branches. Photos of Oklahoma City taken in the 1920s show the tree to be about 108 years old. The tree was taken for granted prior to the blast. Heavily damaged by the bomb, the tree survived after nearly being chopped down during the initial investigation, when workers wanted to recover evidence hanging in its branches and embedded in its bark.</p><br>
<p>The spirit of this city and this nation will not be defeated; our deeply rooted faith sustains us.</p><br>
<p>The Memorial Fence: A 10 ft chain link fence was installed around the area that is now the Reflecting Pool and the Field of Empty Chairs to protect the site from damage and visitors from injury. The Fence stood for more than four years, becoming notable as the place where visitors left stuffed animals, poems, keychains, and other items as tributes. During the construction of the Outdoor Memorial, 210 feet (64 m) of the Fence was moved to the west side of the Memorial, along the 9:03 side or the healing side. The remainder of the Fence is in storage. Visitors may still leave small items along and in the Fence; the mementos are periodically collected, cataloged, and stored.</p><br>
<p>Rescuers Orchard: A grove of Oklahoma redbuds (Oklahomas state tree), Amur Maple, Chinese Pistache, and Bosque Elm trees are planted on the lawn around the Survivor Tree. The trees represent the rescuers who came to the aid of the survivors; hence the rescuer&#39;s orchard surrounds the survivor tree. The non-native species represent those rescuers who came from outside Oklahoma to help.</p><br>
<p>Childrens Area: More than 5,000 hand-painted tiles, from all over the United States and Canada, were made by children and sent to Oklahoma City after the bombing in 1995. Most are stored in the Memorials Archives, and a sampling of tiles is on the wall in the Childrens Area. Chalkboards provide a place where children can draw and share their feelings. The Childrens Area is north of the 9:03 gate, on the west side of the Museum.</p><br>
<p>Journal Record Building: North of the memorial is the Journal Record Building, which formerly housed the offices of The Journal Record. It now houses the Oklahoma City National Memorial Museum, which features numerous exhibits and artifacts related to the Oklahoma City bombing. Staff of the National Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism, a non-partisan think tank created shortly after the bombing by family members and survivors, also work here to spread knowledge of terrorism and its prevention.</p><br>
<p>Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building Plaza: Located just south of the Field of Empty Chairs, above the underground parking garage, is the raised Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building Plaza. An original part of the federal building, the plaza had a garden and seating areas, as well as a playground for the daycare center. Visitors to the Memorial can walk across the plaza, where the original flagpole is used for the American flag.</p><br>
<h2>Adjacent memorials</h2><br>
<p>Two churches were located across the street from the Murrah Building. Both were heavily damaged by the blast. Each church was repaired and both constructed memorials on their property. While not part of the official memorial they are open to the public.</p><br>
<p>Heartland Chapel: Across the street from the 9:01 gate is an open air wooden chapel erected by First United Methodist Church of Oklahoma City. The altar is made from church stones damaged by the bombing. A substantial portion of the funding for the chapel was provided by the Jewish community.</p><br>
<p>And Jesus Wept: Across the street from the 9:03 gate is a sculpture of Jesus weeping erected by St. Joseph&#39;s Catholic Church, one of the first brick-and-mortar churches built in the city. Jesus faces away from the devastation, covering his face with his hand. In front of Jesus is a wall with 168 gaps in it, representing the voids left by each life lost.</p><br>
<p>Elephant Island is an ice-covered mountainous island off the coast of Antarctica in the outer reaches of the South Shetland Islands, in the Southern Ocean. Its name was given by early explorers sighting elephant seals on its shores. The island is situated 245 km north-northeast of the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, 1,253 km westsouthwest of South Georgia, 935 km south of the Falkland Islands, and 885 km southeast of Cape Horn. It is within the Antarctic claims of Argentina, Chile and the UK. Brazil has a shelter on the island, Goeldi, supporting the work of up to six researchers each during the summer. and another , which was dismantled in the summer of 1997/98.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island is oriented approximately east-west, with a maximum elevation of 2,799 ft at Pardo Ridge. Significant named features are Cape Yelcho, Cape Valentine and Cape Lookout at the northeastern and southern extremes, and Point Wild, a spit on the north coast. The Endurance Glacier is the main discharge glacier. Due to slow recoveries and illegal whaling by Soviet Union with support from Japan, numbers of southern right whales visiting Elephant island are still on low level.</p><br>
<p>The island supports no significant flora or native fauna although migratory gentoo penguins and seals may be found, and chinstrap penguins nest in season. A lack of safe anchorage has prevented any permanent human settlement, despite the island being well placed to support scientific, fishing and whaling activities.</p><br>
<p>Elephant Island&#39;s name can be attributed to both its elephant head-like appearance and the sighting of elephant seals by Captain George Powell in 1821, one of the earliest sightings. The weather is normally foggy with much snow, and winds can reach 100 mph.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>First Russian Antarctic expedition</h3><br>
<p>The First Russian Antarctic expedition led by Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on the 985-ton sloop-of-war Vostok ("East") and the 530-ton support vessel Mirny ("Peaceful") discovered the Island on 29 January 1821 and named it "Остров Мордвинова" (Mordvinov Island) in honour of Admiral Mordvinov.</p><br>
<h3>Endurance expedition</h3><br>
<p>The island is most famous as the desolate refuge of British explorer Ernest Shackleton and his crew in 1916. Following the loss of their ship Endurance in Weddell Sea ice, the 28 exhausted men reached Cape Valentine on Elephant Island after a harrowing ordeal on drifting ice floes. The first of Shackleton&#39;s crew to set foot here, and presumably the first person ever to make landfall, was Perce Blackborow, originally a stowaway on Endurance. Since Blackborow was the youngest crew member, Shackleton commanded that he make the first landfall on the island. After camping at Cape Valentine for two nights, Shackleton and his crew moved 7 mi westwards to a location which offered better protection from rockfalls and from the sea, and which they called Point Wild.</p><br>
<p>Realizing that there was no chance of rescue, Shackleton decided to sail to South Georgia where he knew there were several whaling stations. Shackleton sailed with five other men on a 800 mi voyage in the open lifeboat James Caird on Easter Monday, April 24, 1916, arriving at South Georgia 16 days later. His second-in-command, Frank Wild, was left in charge of the men on Elephant Island, waiting for Shackleton&#39;s return with a rescue ship.</p><br>
<p>There was much work for the stranded men. Because the island had no natural source of shelter, they constructed a shack and wind blocks from their remaining two lifeboats and pieces of canvas tents. Blubber lamps were used for lighting. Expedition physicist Reginald James composed the following verses out of gratitude for Wild&#39;s leadership:</p><br>
<p>Quotation</p><br>
<p>They hunted for penguins and seals, neither of which were plentiful in autumn or winter. Many of the crew were already ill and frostbitten, and they were now also in danger of starvation. After four and a half months, one of the men spotted a ship on August 30, 1916. The ship, with Shackleton on board, was the tug Yelcho, from Punta Arenas, Chile, commanded by Luis Pardo, which rescued all the men who had set out on the original expedition. It was the fourth attempt to rescue the men. The first three attempts were turned back due to a heavy ice pack surrounding the island.</p><br>
<p>According to Frank Worsley, Shackletons captain, the men pronounced the islands name with an H prefixed and a silent t, "Hell-of-an-Island".</p><br>
<h3>Joint Services Elephant Island Expeditions 1970/71</h3><br>
<p>A Joint Services Expedition led by Commander Malcolm Burley was dropped off on Elephant Island by HMS Endurance. The party then spent six months carrying out a survey of the island and other scientific research for the British Antarctic Survey and climbing some of the peaks on the island. The expedition visited Point Wild but found no trace of the Endurance expedition; it found the wreckage of the large sailing vessel referred to below, and also landed on and climbed the highest peak on Clarence Island.</p><br>
<h3>Historic sites</h3><br>
<p>Point Wild contains the Endurance Memorial Site, an Antarctic Historic Site (HSM 53), with a bust of Captain Pardo and several plaques. Hampson Cove on the south-west coast of the island, including the foreshore and intertidal area, contains the wreckage of a large wooden sailing vessel; it has been designated a Historic Site or Monument (HSM 74), following a proposal by the United Kingdom to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting.</p><br>
<h2>Maps</h2><br>
<p>Scale 1:200000 topographic map. DOS 610 Series, Sheet W 61 54. Directorate of Overseas Surveys, Tolworth, UK, 1972.</p><br>
<p>Scale 1:220000 topographic map. UK Antarctic Place-names Committee, 2009.</p><br>
<p>The Auditorium Building in Chicago is one of the best-known designs of Louis Sullivan and Dankmar Adler. Completed in 1889, the building is located at the northwest corner of South Michigan Avenue and Congress Street . The building, which when constructed was the largest in the United States and the tallest in Chicago, was designed to be a multi-use complex, including offices, a theater and a hotel. As a young apprentice, Frank Lloyd Wright worked on some of the interior design.</p><br>
<p>The Auditorium Theatre is part of the Auditorium Building and is located at 50 East Congress Parkway. The theater was the first home of the Chicago Civic Opera and the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. It currently hosts the season performances of the Joffrey Ballet.</p><br>
<p>The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 17, 1970. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1975, and was designated a Chicago Landmark on September 15, 1976. In addition, it is a historic district contributing property for the Chicago Landmark Historic Michigan Boulevard District. Since 1947, the Auditorium Building has been part of Roosevelt University.</p><br>
<h2>Origin and purpose</h2><br>
<p>Ferdinand Peck, a Chicago businessman, incorporated the Chicago Auditorium Association in December 1886 to develop what he wanted to be the world&#39;s largest, grandest, most expensive theater that would rival such institutions as the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City. He was said to have wanted to make high culture accessible to the working classes of Chicago.</p><br>
<p>The building was to include an office block and a first class hotel. Peck persuaded many Chicago business tycoons to go on board with him, including Marshall Field, Edson Keith, Martin A. Ryerson, Charles L. Hutchinson and George Pullman. The association hired the renowned architectural firm of Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan to design the building. At the time, a young Frank Lloyd Wright was employed at the firm as draftsman, and he may have contributed to the design."Some interior details were probably drawn by Frank Lloyd Wright, who started in Sullivan&#39;s office as a draftsman in 1887."</p><br>
<p>Banister Fletcher. A History of Architecture. p. 1241.</p><br>
<p>The Auditorium was built for a syndicate of businessmen to house a large civic opera house; to provide an economic base it was decided to wrap the auditorium with a hotel and office block. Hence Adler & Sullivan had to plan a complex multiple-use building. Fronting on Michigan Avenue, overlooking the lake, was the hotel (now Roosevelt University) while the offices were placed to the west on Wabash Avenue. The entrance to the auditorium is on the south side beneath the tall blocky eighteen-story tower. The rest of the building is a uniform ten stories, organized in the same way as Richardsons Marshall Field Wholesale Store. The interior embellishment, however, is wholly Sullivans, and some of the details, because of their continuous curvilinear foliate motifs, are among the nearest equivalents to European Art Nouveau architecture.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>Sullivan and Adler designed a tall structure with load-bearing outer walls, and based the exterior appearance partly on the design of H.H. Richardson&#39;s Marshall Field Warehouse, another Chicago landmark. The Auditorium is a heavy, impressive structure externally, and was more striking in its day when buildings of its scale were less common. When completed, it was the tallest building in the city and largest building in the United States.</p><br>
<p>One of the most innovative features of the building was its massive raft foundation, designed by Adler in conjunction with engineer Paul Mueller. The soil beneath the Auditorium consists of soft blue clay to a depth of over 100 feet, which made conventional foundations impossible. Adler and Mueller designed a floating mat of crisscrossed railroad ties, topped with a double layer of steel rails embedded in concrete, the whole assemblage coated with pitch.</p><br>
<p>The resulting raft distributed the weight of the massive outer walls over a large area. However, the weight of the masonry outer walls in relation to the relatively lightweight interior deformed the raft during the course of a century, and today portions of the building have settled as much as 29 inches. This deflection is clearly visible in the theater lobby, where the mosaic floor takes on a distinct slope as it nears the outer walls. This settlement is not because of poor engineering but the fact the design was changed during construction. The original plan had the exterior covered in lightweight terra-cotta, but this was changed to stone after the foundations were under construction. Most of the settlement occurred within a decade after construction, and at one time a plan existed to shorten the interior supports to level the floors but this was never carried out.</p><br>
<p>In the center of the building was a 4,300 seat auditorium, originally intended primarily for production of Grand Opera. In keeping with Peck&#39;s democratic ideals, the auditorium was designed so that all seats would have good views and acoustics. The original plans had no box seats and when these were added to the plans they did not receive prime locations.</p><br>
<p>Housed in the building around the central space were an 1890 addition of 136 offices and a 400-room hotel, whose purpose was to generate much of the revenue to support the opera. While the Auditorium Building was not intended as a commercial building, Peck wanted it to be self-sufficient. Revenue from the offices and hotel was meant to allow ticket prices to remain reasonable. In reality, both the hotel and office block became unprofitable within a few years.</p><br>
<h2>Later uses</h2><br>
<p>On October 5, 1887, President Grover Cleveland laid the cornerstone for the Auditorium Building. The 1888 Republican National Convention was held in a partially finished building where Benjamin Harrison was nominated as a presidential candidate. On December 9, 1889, President Benjamin Harrison dedicated the building and opera star Adelina Patti sang "Home Sweet Home" to thunderous applause. Adler & Sullivan had also opened their offices on the 16th and 17th floors of the Auditorium tower.</p><br>
<p>The Chicago Symphony Orchestra debuted on October 16, 1891, and made its home in the Auditorium Theatre until moving to Orchestra Hall in 1904.</p><br>
<p>The opera company renting the accommodation moved to the Civic Opera House in 1929, and the Auditorium Theatre closed during the Great Depression. In 1941, it was taken over by the city of Chicago to be used as a World War II servicemen&#39;s center. By 1946, Roosevelt University moved into the Auditorium Building, but the theater was not restored to its former splendor.</p><br>
<p>In 1952, Congress Parkway was widened, bringing the curb to the southern edge of the building. To make room for a sidewalk, some ground-floor rooms and part of the theater lobby were removed and a sidewalk arcade created.</p><br>
<p>On October 31, 1967, the Auditorium Theatre reopened and through 1975, the Auditorium served as a rock venue. Among other notable acts, the Grateful Dead played there ten times from 1971 through 1977.</p><br>
<p>The Doors also played their first concert at the Auditorium Building after their arrest of singer Jim Morrison on June 14, 1969.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark by the USA Department of the Interior in 1975.</p><br>
<p>The building was equipped with the first central air conditioning system and the theater was the first to be entirely lit by incandescent light bulbs. In 2001, a major restoration of the Auditorium Theatre was begun by Daniel P. Coffey and Associates in conjunction with EverGreene Architectural Arts to return the theater to its original colors and finishes.</p><br>
<p>On April 30, 2015, the National Football League held its 2015 NFL Draft in the Auditorium Theatre, the first time the league has held its annual draft in Chicago in more than 50 years.</p><br>
<p>The Shag Rocks  are six small islands in the westernmost extreme of South Georgia, 240 km west of the main island of South Georgia and 1,000 km off the Falkland Islands. The Shag Rocks are located at 53&deg;33&prime;S latitude, 42&deg;02&prime;W longitude. 16 km further southeast is Black Rock. Black Rock is located at 53&deg;39&prime;S latitude, 41&deg;48&prime;W longitude.</p><br>
<p>The Shag Rocks cover a total area of less than 20 hectare. Situated on the South Georgia Ridge, they have a peak elevation above sea level of 75 m, and stand in water approximately 319 m deep. Temperatures average -1.2 &deg;C, rarely climbing above 15 &deg;C. There is no significant vegetation.</p><br>
<p>The main wildlife found on the islands are the South Georgia shags, prions and wandering albatrosses.</p><br>
<p>The Shag Rocks were possibly discovered by Jose de la Llana in 1762, and originally named the Aurora Islands, after his ship. However, the Aurora Islands are considered by many to have been a mistaken sighting that was coincidentally near the Shag Rocks, which were known to sealers prior to 1823. They were later rediscovered by James Sheffield and given their current name, probably because shags and other seabirds frequent them. They were charted by Discovery Investigations personnel on the William Scoresby in 1927. The first landing on the islands was made in 1956, when an Argentine geologist was lowered from a helicopter to collect rock samples.</p><br>
<h2>Government</h2><br>
<p>The Shag Rocks are uninhabited and so lack any active administration. They form part of the British overseas territory of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Before 1985 they came within the Falkland Islands Dependencies.</p><br>
<p>Argentina also lays claim to many islands of the area, including Black Rock and Shag Rocks. The Falklands War of 1982 was fought by Britain and Argentina not only over the territories of the Falkland Islands, but also over South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Black Rock and Shag Rocks are on the route from the Falkland Islands to South Georgia Island, on a seamount of Scotia Ridge.</p><br>
<p>Britain won the 1982 Falklands War, and in 1985 formed its overseas territory of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, which includes Black Rock and Shag Rocks. It now assumes responsibility for preservation and defence of the area. Argentina, which claims the islands in its constitution and invaded and briefly occupied a number of the islands in 1982, agreed in 1995 to no longer seek settlement by force.</p><br>
<p>The Diablerets  are a huge ice-covered mountain massif of the Alps, culminating at the Sommet des Diablerets  at 3,210 m above sea level and straddling the border between the Swiss cantons of Vaud  and Valais . The northeastern part of the massif streches also into the canton of Bern .</p><br>
<p>The Diablerets massif, which consists of several peaks, extends for about 10 kilometres near the western extremity of the Bernese Alps, between the two deep passes, the Cheville Pass (2,038 m) right below the main summit to the south, and the Sanetsch/Sénin Pass (2,252 m) to the east. The mountain is covered by two distinct glaciers, the largest being the Tsanfleuron Glacier and the highest being the Diablerets Glacier.</p><br>
<p>The main summit (officially referred to as Sommet des Diablerets) is the highest point in the canton of Vaud. In the latter canton, the mountain has given its name to the nearby village and resort of Les Diablerets, which lies on the north side of the massif. On the south side (Valais) the mountain overlooks the hamlet and valley of Derborence.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Along with the Muverans, the Wildhorn and the Wildstrubel, the Diablerets are one of the four distinct and glaciated massifs of the Bernese Alps that lie between the Rhone elbow and the Gemmi Pass. The main section of the mountain, between the cantons of Vaud and Valais, is part of the Rhone basin, through the rivers Grande Eau (north) and Lizerne (south). The easternmost part of the massif, that lies in the canton of Bern, is part of the Rhine basin, through the river Sarine (French, Saane in German). The Oldehore (Swiss German, Germanized: Oldenhorn) is the tripoint of the three cantons of Vaud, Valais and Bern, and several of the peaks have a German as well as a French name.</p><br>
<p>The main peaks of the massif are, from west to east: the Culan (VD, 2,789 m) at the western end of the massif, the Tête Ronde (VD, 3,037 m) approximately 800 meters west of the main summit, the Sommet des Diablerets (main summit), Le Dôme (VS, 2,986 m) east of the main summit and between the two glaciers, the Sex Rouge (also called Scex Rouge; VD, 2,971 m) and the Oldehorn/Becca dAudon (VD, BE, VS; 3,123 m) across the Tsanfleuron Glacier, and the Sentschore/Mont Brun (BE, VS; 2,924 m) further to the northeast. Also notable is the tower-like peak of the Quille du Diable ("devils skittle," also known as Tour St-Martin; VS, 2,908 m) that overlooks Derborence from the edge of the Tsanfleuron plateau.</p><br>
<p>The two largest glaciers on the massif (Tsanfleuron and Diablerets) are both on the Valais side. They form a single inclined plane towards the east, although they are separated by the rocky summit of Le Dôme (2,986 m), which lies just east of the main summit. They are not very steep, especially the Tsanfleuron Glacier, as the rock strata are close to horizontal. The smaller and higher Diablerets Glacier, however, is much wilder than the Tsanfleuron Glacier as it is steeper and more crevassed. The Tsanfleuron plateau, between Le Dôme and the Sanetsch Pass is only partly glaciated. Below 2,600 m is a large karst zone, called Lapis de Tsanfleuron and covering an area of about 8 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>Along with the Culan, the Tête Ronde, and the Scex Rouge, the main summit forms an amphitheatre of limestone cliffs with numerous water falls, surrounding the valley of Creux de Champ and overlooking the village of Les Diablerets from a height of over 2,000 metres. The height of the north wall is about 1,600 metres, its bottom (named Rochers de Champ) lying at 1,600 metres.</p><br>
<p>As with other mountains on the crest of the Bernese Alps, the slopes of the Diablerets experience different types of climate depending on their location: the northern slopes are cooler and wetter while the southern slopes are drier and warmer. Forests are found up to 1,900 metres on the north side and up to 2,000 metres on the south side. Further south in Valais, on the slopes of Mont Gond, vineyards are also very common below 1000 metres, but completely absent on the north side. There, alpine pastures dominate the landscape, as in many other areas of the northern Alpine foothills.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism and climbing</h2><br>
<p>Since 1964, an aerial tramway connects the Scex Rouge from the Col du Pillon, 4 kilometres east of the village of Les Diablerets. The Tsanfleuron Glacier, easily accessible from the Scex Rouge mountain station, has then become part of a large ski area with several ski lifts on it, culminating at nearly 3,000 metres, that goes by the commercial name of Glacier 3000. The area is also popular in summer for the snow hikes on the glacier. The summits of Le Dôme and Oldenhorn can be reached in a few hours from the station. The Peak Walk, a 107m suspension bridge to Scex Rouge from the peak at the top of the lift station, was constructed as a tourist attraction in 2014.</p><br>
<p>The main summit, although not very distant from the Scex Rouge station, can not be easily reached as it involves the crossing of the much-crevassed Diablerets Glacier, though it is accessible to more intrepid hikers.</p><br>
<p>Administratively, le Sommet des Diablerets is shared between the municipalities of Conthey (VS), Ormont-Dessus and Bex (VD).</p><br>
<p>Glyfada  is a suburb in Athens. It is situated in the southern parts of the Athens Urban Area. The area stretches from the foot of the Hymettus mountain to the Saronic Gulf. It is the largest of Athens southern suburb. "Hellenic Hamptons".</p><br>
<p>On the quay at Glyfada is a rescue and rehabilitation centre for sea turtles, run by ARCHELON, the Sea Turtle Protection Society of Greece. The staff there provide free educational tours of the facilities and treatments for visitors.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In ancient times, the area was a deme known as Aixone (Αἰξωνή). Today, Glyfada is packed with some of the capitals best-known nightclubs, upscale restaurants and shops. It could be argued to be one of the most "Americanized" of Athenian municipalities, since an American airbase was located nearby until the early 1990s. The bases population contributed in part to Glyfada&#39;s character, leading to a unique blend of Greek and American atmosphere and cuisine. Although the base is now gone and the school relocated, Glyfada still retains part of its American flavour while continuing to offer distinctly Greek cuisine, entertainment and nightlife.</p><br>
<p>Glyfada was established as the heart of Athens southern suburbs, because of its prime waterfront location, rich commercial centre, and modern business district. It has been described as the headpoint of the Athens Riviera and features some of Europes most opulent seafront residences, gardens and extensive beachfront property, with a modern marina.</p><br>
<p>The town hall is located at the center of the municipality; nearby, Glyfada’s shopping district has one of the most vibrant and diversified commercial centres of Athens&#39; neighbourhoods, with a collection ranging across specialist and designer boutiques. Its proximity to a succession of beaches and a concentrated seaside club scene also greatly increases the number of visitors during the summer months. The area’s shopping district runs across Metaxa Avenue and Grigoriou Labraki Street while both the offices of major businesses and shopping areas also dot the Avenues Voyliagmenis, Goynari and Gennimata.</p><br>
<p>At the beginning of the 20th century the town had already changed its name to "Glyfada", a name given because of the presence of salt-water wells typical of this area.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 25.366 km. Glyfada Marina includes marine space and coastal land area totaling 3 km, and a concrete land mass between basins A and B with a length of roughly 250 m, between basins B and G with a length of roughly 150 m, between basins G and D with a length of roughly 300 m, and between basin D until the end of the basin of roughly 350 m, with all harbor facilities and buildings found within this space.</p><br>
<p>Northwest is the golf course of Athens, the Glyfada Golf Club, located south of the former Ellinikon Airport. To the east and northeast is an urban sprawl which spreads over the southwest shoulder of Mt. Hymettus and its rocky landscape.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Glyfada is connected to central Athens via two major avenues (Poseidonos Avenue and Vouliagmenis Avenue) and a tram line operated by STASY S.A which goes across the seaside next to Posidonos Avenue.</p><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<p>32,492 people registered with the Municipality of Glyfada voted during the Municipal Elections of October 2006. At the second round, 54.79% of the votes were for Thanasis Papakostas, who was the mayor of Glyfada for the 2006-2010 period.</p><br>
<p>Kostantinos Kokoris was just elected Mayor.</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>The Glyfada Indoor Hall is located at the Municipality, formerly a major indoor sport venue of local Athens teams. Glyfada is the seat of ANO Glyfada, club with many honours in Greek Water Polo and Glyfada F.C.</p><br>
<h2>Famous residents and people</h2><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Districts</h2><br>
<p>Agios Nikolaos, Glyfada</p><br>
<p>Kolimvitirio</p><br>
<p>Eksoni</p><br>
<p>Evriali</p><br>
<p>Pirnari</p><br>
<p>Egli</p><br>
<p>Ano Glyfada</p><br>
<p>Terpsithea</p><br>
<h2>Twin cities</h2><br>
<p>Glyfada is twinned with the following cities:</p><br>
<p>Niš, Serbia</p><br>
<p>Gżira, Malta</p><br>
<p>Vidnoye, Moscow Oblast, Russia</p><br>
<p>Helvellyn  is a mountain in the English Lake District, the highest point of the Helvellyn range, a north-south line of mountains to the north of Ambleside, between the lakes of Thirlmere and Ullswater.</p><br>
<p>Helvellyn is the third-highest point both in England and in the Lake District, and access to Helvellyn is easier than to the two higher peaks of Scafell Pike and Sca Fell. The scenery includes three deep glacial coves and two sharp-topped ridges on the eastern side (Striding Edge and Swirral Edge).</p><br>
<p>The volcanic rocks of which the mountain is made were formed in the caldera of an ancient volcano, many of them in violently explosive eruptions, about 450 million years ago during the Ordovician period. During the last ice age these rocks were carved by glaciers to create the landforms seen today.</p><br>
<p>Since the end of the last ice age, small populations of arctic-alpine plants have survived in favourable spots on rock ledges high in the eastern coves. Rare to Britain species of alpine butterfly, the mountain ringlet, also live on and around Helvellyn.</p><br>
<p>Mineral veins, some with deposits of the lead ore galena, do exist within Helvellyn&#39;s rocks, but attempts to find sufficient quantities of lead to be worth mining have not been successful.</p><br>
<p>Tourism has been a more successful industry in the area. For over two hundred years visitors have been drawn by the lake and mountain scenery of the Lake District, and many have made their way to the top of Helvellyn. Among the early visitors to Helvellyn were the poets Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth, both of whom lived nearby at one period. Many routes up the mountain are possible so that it may be approached from all directions. The view from the top is one of the most extensive over the Lake District, and on a clear day the view can also stretch from Scotland to Wales.</p><br>
<p>However, traversing the mountain is not without dangers; over the last two hundred years there have been a number of fatalities. The artist Charles Gough is more famous for his death on Striding Edge in 1805 than for what he achieved in his life.</p><br>
<p>Among many human feats upon the mountain, one of the strangest was the landing and take-off of a small aeroplane on the summit in 1926.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The top of Helvellyn is a broad plateau, trending roughly from north-west to south-east for about a kilometre between Lower Man and the start of Striding Edge. Throughout this distance it remains more than 900 m high. To the west the ground drops gently at first but then more steeply down to Thirlmere, while on the eastern side three deep glacial coves, each backed by high cliffs, are separated by two spectacular sharp ridges or arêtes. The middle of these coves contains Red Tarn.</p><br>
<p>Like much of the main ridge of the range, Helvellyn stands on the watershed between Thirlmere and the Derwent river system to the west, and Ullswater and the Eden river system to the east.</p><br>
<p>Streams on the west side drain directly into Thirlmere, apart from Helvellyn Gill which flows into a parallel valley to the east of Great How and empties into St John&#39;s Beck. However, when Thirlmere reservoir was built, a leat was constructed to capture the water of Helvellyn Gill, so that it is now directed into the reservoir.</p><br>
<p>A never-failing spring called Brownrigg Well exists 90 m below the summit of Helvellyn, about 500 m due west of the highest point, at the head of Whelpside Gill.</p><br>
<p>Whelp Side, between Whelpside Gill and Mines Gill, appears as a distinct shoulder of the mountain when seen from the west, largely grassy though with a few crags and boulders in places, and with coniferous plantations on its lower slopes which were planted to stabilise the land around the reservoir. North of Mines Gill are the Helvellyn Screes, a more craggy stretch of hillside, beneath the north-west ridge, with a loose scree covering in places.</p><br>
<p>The deep coves on the rocky eastern side of Helvellyn drain into Ullswater. Water from Brown Cove and Red Tarn unite below Catstye Cam to form Glenridding Beck, which flows through Glenridding village to the lake, while Nethermost Cove drains into the same lake via Grisedale Beck and Patterdale village.</p><br>
<p>Red Tarn, enclosed between Striding Edge and Swirral Edge, is about 25 m deep, but in the mid-nineteenth century a dam was built to increase its capacity and supply the needs of the Greenside Mine near Glenridding. That dam has now gone and the tarn has returned to its natural size. It contains brown trout and schelly, a species of whitefish found in only four bodies of water in the Lake District.</p><br>
<p>A second reservoir was built around 1860 in Brown Cove, between Swirral Edge and Lower Man, along with one further down the valley in Keppel Cove. These provided water to generate hydroelectric power for the lead mine. The dam in Keppel Cove is still in place, but water now leaks through its base. The remains of the dam in Brown Cove can be seen, but again water leaks freely through it. It is unclear whether there ever was a natural tarn in Brown Cove. Guidebook writers before 1860 refer only to Keppel Cove Tarn to the north of Swirral Edge.</p><br>
<h3>Ridges</h3><br>
<p>A total of five ridges diverge from the summit ridge of Helvellyn at different points.</p><br>
<p>The north-west ridge continues from Lower Man over Browncove Crags, becoming almost insignificant when it reaches the shore of Thirlmere, yet still separating the valley of Helvellyn Gill from the reservoir, before finally rising again to the wooded height of Great How at its terminus.</p><br>
<p>The north ridge, the main ridge of the range, also descends from Lower Man, passing over White Side and Raise to Sticks Pass, then over Stybarrow Dodd and Great Dodd to terminate at Clough Head.</p><br>
<p>The north-east ridge is known as Swirral Edge, a sharp arête which joins the summit ridge at a point half-way along, and which terminates in the shapely pyramid of Catstye Cam.</p><br>
<p>The east ridge is another sharp arête known as Striding Edge. This joins the summit ridge at its southern end, not far from Helvellyn&#39;s summit. It passes over the subsidiary top of High Spying How and leads to Birkhouse Moor before descending to its final top, Keldas, beside the south end of Ullswater.</p><br>
<p>The south ridge continues the main ridge of the Helvellyn range over Nethermost Pike, High Crag and Dollywagon Pike to terminate at Grisedale Tarn.</p><br>
<p>The former county boundary between Cumberland and Westmorland lay along the Helvellyn Ridge; this meant that the summit of Helvellyn was the highest point in Westmorland, making it a Historic County Top.</p><br>
<h3>Subsidiary tops</h3><br>
<h2>Routes</h2><br>
<p>The whole of Helvellyn, above the conifer plantations to the west and the intake walls surrounding the valleys of Glenridding and Grisedale to the east, is Open Access land.</p><br>
<p>Routes up Helvellyn can begin from the villages of Glenridding or Patterdale to the east, Grasmere to the south, or from a number of places along the A591 road to the west, and can follow any of the mountain&#39;s five ridges, or the ridges of its neighbours, as well as some of the gills and shoulders on the west side of the range. Walkers can choose between many routes.</p><br>
<h3>The eastern ridges</h3><br>
<p>Striding Edge is a popular route which involves some scrambling, linking the summit ridge of Birkhouse Moor to Helvellyn&#39;s summit by what becomes a sharp arête.</p><br>
<p>Striding Edge begins at Hole-in-the-Wall and then stretches for over 1.5 km to the Helvellyn summit plateau. This starting point is accessible from both Glenridding and Patterdale. Hole-in-the-Wall used to be a prominent gap in the stone wall on the top of the ridge where a gate was missing. Today the gap has been filled in and a ladder stile crosses the wall. From here the initial part of the ridge is relatively rounded and has a solid path running along the right-hand side. This changes upon reaching High Spying How, the highest point on the ridge — 863 m. At this point a narrow path continues close to the top of the ridge, which becomes increasingly narrow, and scramblers will often follow the very top of the arête.</p><br>
<p>The path on the right-hand side continues until near the end of the ridge where it switches over to the left-hand side. Scramblers who continue on the top of the ridge are forced to descend an awkward short gully down from the final rock tower to rejoin the path. At this point the ridge connects with the main Helvellyn massif. Reaching the summit plateau involves a steep walk or scramble up about 80 m of rough rocky terrain, known as The Abyss by W. A. Poucher, author of a popular series of mountain guide books between 1940 and the late 1960s. From the top of this climb the summit is only 200 m away.</p><br>
<p>Striding Edge is a notorious accident spot among hikers and scramblers. In winter conditions the climb from Striding Edge up to the summit plateau can involve crossing steep icy ground and a snow cornice, and can be the most dangerous part of the walk. Without an ice axe or crampons this presents a serious obstacle. In January 2008 two walkers died after falling from the ridge in separate incidents. Another walker died after falling from Striding Edge in May 2008.</p><br>
<p>Swirral Edge offers a shorter but equally exciting scramble along a similar sharp arête. The main path to it comes up from Red Tarn, which is linked by a surprisingly level path to Hole-in-the-Wall, making this ridge equally accessible from Patterdale as from Glenridding. The ridge walk can be extended to include the summit of Catstye Cam.</p><br>
<p>The climb up or down from the summit plateau onto Swirral Edge is another well known accident spot. In winter it involves climbing down another snow cornice onto steep icy ground. There have been a number of accidents at this spot in recent years, making it as dangerous as Striding Edge.</p><br>
<p>Nethermost Pike also has an east ridge which gives an alternative route to Helvellyn from Grisedale, which many walkers overlook. It can be combined with a scramble on Eagle Crag, or this part can be bypassed by taking the path to Nethermost Cove before joining the ridge.</p><br>
<h3>Other approaches from the east</h3><br>
<p>From Patterdale a long but safe and easy walk (11.5 km) on a good path follows the track up Grisedale to the tarn, and then takes the old pony track up the south ridge of Helvellyn. The second part of this walk takes a safe route well away from crags on the side of the ridge (see The south ridge below.)</p><br>
<p>From Glenridding a similar long but safe and easy walk (11.5 km) follows Greenside Road, past the old lead mine and towards Keppel Cove. This track, another old pony track, then zigzags up the fellside to join the main ridge path at the col between Raise and White Side.</p><br>
<h3>The south ridge</h3><br>
<p>Grisedale Tarn is the starting point for the south ridge of Helvellyn, and may be reached from Grasmere or Patterdale, or from Dunmail Raise by a path alongside Raise Beck. Above the tarn the old pony track zigzags up the fellside, and takes a safe but unexciting route well away from crags on the side of the ridge, and avoiding all the intermediate tops. In suitable weather a more interesting and scenic route is to follow the edge of the crags as closely as possible, over the tops of Dollywagon Pike, High Crag and Nethermost Pike.</p><br>
<h3>The western approaches</h3><br>
<p>Shorter and quicker routes to the top of Helvellyn, though with less attractive scenery, begin from several points along the A591 road along the west side of the mountain. Two of these may be combined to create a circular walk. Incorporating the south ridge in the route can restore much of the scenic interest.</p><br>
<p>Stannah at Legburthwaite is the starting point for the bridleway to Sticks Pass, from which Helvellyn can be approached along the main ridge track from the north.</p><br>
<p>From Thirlspot two routes lead up Helvellyn. The old pony route took a very safe and steady route for the benefit of early visitors, who took horses and a guide from the inn. The route traverses the flank of White Side to join the ridge at the col just below Lower Man. The other route, known as the White Stones Route, originally marked by stones painted white, crosses the fellside at a lower level and fords Helvellyn Gill to join the path from Swirls.</p><br>
<p>Swirls is the start of the most direct route to the top of Helvellyn, "the modern pedestrian highway" which has been paved where necessary. It zigzags up the fellside above Helvellyn Gill, over Browncove Crags and joins the main ridge at Lower Man.</p><br>
<p>Several possible routes begin at Wythburn church. A bridleway winds up the fellside, over Comb Crags and traverses the slopes of Nethermost Pike to arrive on the ridge at Swallow Scarth, the col just below Helvellyn. Other routes from Wythburn follow Comb Gill or Whelpside Gill, or Middle Tongue between these two gills. The shortest route of all follows the gill past the old lead mine, perhaps better used as a descent. Wainwright warned walkers with weak ankles to avoid it.</p><br>
<h3>Longer routes</h3><br>
<p>Helvellyn may be included in a traverse of the full length of the Helvellyn range in either direction, but with a greater sense of climax when starting from the north. Most of the ridge track is a bridleway and so the route can be completed by mountain bike in a challenging six-hour circular route of 16 miles off-road and 10 miles on-road riding. This may begin (and finish) at Mill Bridge near Grasmere.</p><br>
<p>Helvellyn can also be included in a circular walk from Patterdale: up Striding Edge, down to Grisedale Tarn and back over St Sunday Crag.</p><br>
<h3>Climbing routes</h3><br>
<p>Helvellyn is a popular area for winter climbing in the Lake District. The steep headwall above Red Tarn contains several graded routes, clustered around the prow-shaped buttress on the right-hand side of the face, known to climbers as Viking Buttress, and in a couple of gullies which lead to the summit.</p><br>
<p>Nethermost Cove also has some routes, including a large gully between Striding Edge and the back of the cove.</p><br>
<p>Browncove Crags on the western side of the mountain has some north-facing routes. These are easier to access from a car park, and they can be linked with the Red Tarn routes.</p><br>
<h2>Fell top assessors</h2><br>
<p>The Lake District National Park Authority employs two "Fell top assessors" during the winter months, usually between December and March. Working alternate weeks, one of these walks up Helvellyn each day during that period to check the weather, snow and walking conditions. Their report and daily photograph appear on Weatherline, the Lake District weather forecast website and phone line service, which also includes a local weather forecast from the Met Office. The fell top assessors also put their assessments and photos on Twitter. This information is important for people who go out hillwalking and climbing in winter, helping them to plan their routes and get an idea of the mountain conditions.</p><br>
<h2>Wild camping</h2><br>
<p>Many people camp on Helvellyn throughout the year, often near Red Tarn which gives good views of Striding Edge, Swirral Edge, and the summit of Helvellyn itself. Although camping in England is illegal without the permission of the landowner, there is a tradition of wild camping in the Lake District. This has often been tolerated so long as people have camped unobtrusively, for no more than one night, and have left no trace of their campsite behind.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit of Helvellyn takes the form of a broad plateau, sloping gently to the south-west, but dropping abruptly to the north-east into Red Tarn cove. So smooth and large is this summit that a small aeroplane was able to land on it in 1926 (see History below). The highest point, 950 m above sea level, is the top of a small rocky knoll, marked by a loose cairn. In former times this knoll used to be known as Helvellyn High Man (or Higher Man.) Nearby there is a cross-shaped stone shelter; to the north is an Ordnance Survey trig point, slightly lower than the summit at 949 m.</p><br>
<p>The view from the top on a clear day extends across the whole of the Lake District to the Solway Firth and hills of south-west Scotland to the north-west, Cheviot and the Pennine Hills to the north-east, Morecambe Bay, Blackpool and the coast of North Wales to the south, and the Irish Sea to the west. Snowdon is hidden by the Coniston Fells, and the Isle of Man is largely hidden behind the Great Gable and Pillar group of fells.</p><br>
<p>The subsidiary top, Helvellyn Lower Man, is about 700 m to the north-west. Its summit is small compared to the plateau of Helvellyn, but it offers better views to the north-west, as the ground falls steeply away from it on that side.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Tourism</h3><br>
<p>For centuries shepherds have walked over all parts of Helvellyn in the course of their work. It is only since the late eighteenth century that people have visited the mountain for pleasure or recreation.</p><br>
<p>One of the earliest accounts of an ascent of Helvellyn for the pleasure of doing so is contained in James Clarke&#39;s guidebook of 1787. He quotes the account of an unnamed gentleman from Penrith who wanted to eat his dinner on Midsummer Day while sitting in a snowdrift on top of Helvellyn. The man left home at two in the morning, rode to Glencoyne and left his horse at a house in the valley there. He started to walk up the mountain at between four and five in the morning and after five hours hot and hard work he reached the snow and the summit. The snow was covered with dust so he had to dig for clean snow to eat with his dinner. He returned by a different route, reaching Glencoyne ten hours after leaving it. This story seems to reflect the colder climatic conditions of the eighteenth century, during the so-called "Little Ice Age".</p><br>
<p>Poets and artists were among the early visitors to Helvellyn at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Samuel Taylor Coleridge did a lot of fellwalking during the years when he lived near Keswick. In August 1800, barely a month after moving there, he went to visit his friends William and Dorothy Wordsworth in Grasmere, taking a route over Helvellyn and arriving at ten in the evening.</p><br>
<p>A few days later William Wordsworth with his brother John and their friend Mr Simpson made a trip up Helvellyn, setting out after breakfast and returning home at ten that evening. A year later, in October 1801, William and his sister Dorothy rode to Legburthwaite (to the inn at Thirlspot) and then to the top of Helvellyn before returning the same way. Dorothy recorded that it had been a glorious day. They had mists both above and below them, but the sun shone through and their views extended from the Scottish mountains to the sea at Cartmel. Wordsworth’s poem, Inmate of a mountain dwelling (1816), celebrating the captivating power of the old mountain, was dedicated "To … on her first ascent to the summit of Helvellyn."</p><br>
<p>John Keats speaks of Wordsworth "on Helvellyn&#39;s summit, wide awake…" in a sonnet that celebrates the poet and other artists. A portrait of Wordsworth, deep in thought among the clouds on the summit of Helvellyn, was painted by Benjamin Robert Haydon in 1842, an example of romanticism in portraiture.</p><br>
<p>An early casualty of the mountain was the artist Charles Gough, who slipped and fell from Striding Edge in April 1805. Three months later a shepherd heard a dog barking near Red Tarn and went to investigate. He found Goughs skeleton, his hat split in two, and his dog still in attendance. Initial newspaper reports that the dog had survived by eating the remains of her dead master were quickly forgotten. Gough became regarded as a martyr to the romantic ideal, and his dog Foxie was celebrated for her attachment and fidelity to her long-dead master. William Wordsworth and Sir Walter Scott both wrote poems about the scene; Francis Danby and Edwin Landseer both painted it. A memorial stone to Gough was erected on Helvellyn in 1890 and quotes part of Wordsworths poem "Fidelity".</p><br>
<p>A small tourist industry began to grow up around the mountain, with inns providing ponies and guides as well as accommodation for the visitors, and guidebooks being published for visitors. Jonathan Otley’s guidebook of 1823 described the view from the summit and claimed it gave a more complete view of the Lake District than any other point. William Ford, in his guidebook of 1839 recommended the Horse Head Inn at Wythburn as a good place to stay and where a guide could be hired "at a moderate charge&quot he went on to describe the climb up Whelp Side and the view from the top. Harriet Martineau in 1855 described the ascent from Patterdale. Ponies could be taken as far as Red Tarn, where there were stakes to tether them while undertaking the final part on foot via Swirral Edge. "Though trying to unnaccustomed nerves," she said, "there is no real danger&quot the other ridge "is always fool-hardy to do", and "every one knows" the story of Charles Gough. She also mentioned three routes from the west: one by Grisedale Tarn, one from the Nag’s Head at Wythburn, "the shortest, but by far the steepest," and a third from Legburthwaite (that is, from the inn at Thirlspot.) An advertisement in her book, placed by the King&#39;s Head Inn at Legburthwaite, claimed "A guide always in readiness at this inn."</p><br>
<p>A further fatality on Striding Edge in 1858 is commemorated by the Dixon Memorial. Robert Dixon from Patterdale was killed while following foxhounds on the ridge.</p><br>
<h3>Aeroplane landing</h3><br>
<p>In 1926 a small aeroplane landed on the summit plateau of Helvellyn and took off again. The plane was an Avro 585 Gosport, a two-seater biplane flown by Bert Hinkler, a test pilot who worked for A V Roe, the plane&#39;s manufacturers, at Woodford Aerodrome near Manchester.</p><br>
<p>A ground party had cleared and marked a landing strip. Attempts on 15 December and on 21 December were abandoned.</p><br>
<p>On 22 December Hinkler, accompanied by John F. Leeming, president of the Lancashire Aero Club, made another attempt. The landing was no problem. On the steep slope and with a strong headwind the plane stopped quickly. Professor E. R. Dodds witnessed the landing. The uphill take-off was more difficult and the plane dived off the edge of the summit with insufficient airspeed, but picked up speed as it dived, narrowly missing Striding Edge, to return to Manchester.</p><br>
<p>A stone tablet on Helvellyn, 40 yd south of the shelter, commemorates this landing.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>Mountain birds around Helvellyn include the raven (Corvus corax), which has now become common. Peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), buzzards (Buteo buteo) and ring ouzels (Turdus torquatus) have all bred in the immediate area. Skylarks (Alauda arvensis) and wheatears (Oenanthe oenanthe) are frequently encountered. At one time eagles (probably Aquila chrysaetos) soared over the mountain and bred on the steep cliffs above Red Tarn, but even in Wordsworth&#39;s day they had gone, having been persecuted to extinction.</p><br>
<p>The three coves to the east of Helvellyn are all important sites for remnant populations of arctic-alpine plants. Species such as downy willow (Salix lapponum), mountain avens (Dryas octopetala), alpine mouse-ear (Cerastium alpinum), alpine meadowgrass (Poa alpina) and others have been able to survive in these coves since the last glaciation through a combination of rocks rich in basic minerals, a harsh micro-climate, and inaccessibility to grazing sheep on cliff ledges. However, these populations are small and are not reproducing well. Natural England has introduced a recovery plan for them.</p><br>
<p>Red Tarn, a classic corrie tarn, is a high-altitude tarn with low nutrient levels and poor in the number of species it supports. Characteristic vegetation zones include a water-starwort (Callitriche) in shallower areas and the alga Nitella flexilis in deeper water and around the inlet. Other species include a pondweed (Potamogeton) which grows in 2 – of water and the rush Juncus bulbosus. Brown trout and schelly, a species of whitefish, are found in the tarn.</p><br>
<p>Grassland on the Helvellyn range has been heavily overgrazed for many years, yet it supports a diversity of acid grassland species including sheep&#39;s fescue (Festuca ovina) on the summit ridge, matgrass (Nardus stricta) on the middle slopes, and fescue-bent swards on the lower slopes. The Nardus grasslands are the haunt of the scarce mountain ringlet butterfly (Erebia epiphron), the only alpine species of butterfly found in Britain. Acidic flushes (areas of water seepage) with their carpets of sphagnum mosses are common. Less common are basic flushes, which support a greater diversity of species.</p><br>
<p>The summit and the eastern side of the mountain are part of the Helvellyn & Fairfield Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). This covers an area of 2,418.8 hectare and was designated in 1975 because of the area&#39;s geological and biological features. Natural England, which is responsible for choosing SSSIs, tries to ensure that the management and use of the area is sustainable.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>All the rocks of Helvellyn are part of the Borrowdale Volcanic Group, formed on the margin of an ancient continent during a period of intense volcanic activity during the Ordovician period, roughly 450 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>Helvellyn lies within a geological structure which is interpreted as evidence of a volcanic caldera. This is a semi-circular series of faults which sweep eastwards to encompass Helvellyn, Patterdale, Deepdale and Fairfield, and which abut against a major north-south fault to the west (along the line of the A591 road).</p><br>
<p>This caldera was formed by an eruption of exceptional magnitude which produced a series of pyroclastic flows, fast moving currents of hot gas and rock, which buried the whole district of roughly 500 km&sup2; beneath at least 150 m (in places up to 800 m of ignimbrite). This succession of ignimbrites is known as the Lincomb Tarns Tuff Formation, the most widespread volcanic formation in the Lake District. The eruption of such a huge quantity of magma emptied the magma chamber beneath the volcano and led to the collapse of the overlying rocks to form the caldera.</p><br>
<p>The lowest and oldest rocks on Helvellyn are those of this Lincomb Tarns Tuff Formation, which outcrop along the western side, up to roughly the 550 m contour on Whelp Side. The lowest part of the formation here is the densely welded lapilli-tuff of the Thirlmere Member, in which the individual pieces of semi-molten lava were flattened under the weight of deposits above them. Contemporaneous movement on the caldera&#39;s boundary fault has produced a thick deposit of breccia</p><br>
<p>Above these ignimbrites are found sedimentary rocks of the Esk Pike Sandstone Formation. These were deposited in water, probably in a caldera lake, as the volcanic rocks weathered and were eroded. Structures in these rocks suggest the faults were still active and the caldera was still subsiding. Layers of tuff and lapilli-tuff indicate some ongoing volcanism.</p><br>
<p>Higher still on Helvellyn, as well as in the coves to the east and covering Swirral Edge and Catstye Cam, are rocks of the Helvellyn Tuff Formation. This consists of up to 400 m of ignimbrite, representing another series of pyroclastic flows. This Helvellyn Tuff is found only within the boundary faults of the caldera, and mainly in its western half.</p><br>
<p>The highest surviving rocks on Helvellyn, found on the summit plateaux of Helvellyn itself and of Nethermost Pike, and along the crest of Striding Edge, are the volcaniclastic sandstones of the Deepdale Sandstone Formation. Again, this formation is confined to the limits of the caldera, and represents another return to erosion and sedimentary deposition within a caldera lake, though with layers of pyroclastic rock showing that the volcanism had not entirely finished.</p><br>
<h3>Glaciation</h3><br>
<p>During the Late Devensian glaciation, which occurred 28,000 to 14,700 years Before Present (BP), the whole of northern England was covered by an ice sheet. Helvellyn was one of a small number of nunataks which protruded above the ice.</p><br>
<p>A short period of glacial conditions returned between 12,650 and 11,550 years BP, known in Britain as the Loch Lomond Stadial (and elsewhere as the Younger Dryas stadial), when the Gulf Stream current ceased to flow past the British Isles. Small cirque and valley glaciers formed in north and east facing valleys, including Grisedale and the coves on the east side of Helvellyn. The results are seen in moraines of unsorted boulder gravel in the valleys, the spectacular coves with steep headwalls, and the sharp arêtes formed where the rock was eroded on both sides between adjacent glaciers.</p><br>
<p>Glacial conditions ended suddenly, 11,550 years BP, when the Gulf Stream current was re-established. Periglacial processes in seasonal freeze-thaw conditions, both present and past, have produced sorted stone stripes and solifluction lobes and sheets on the summit ridge of Helvellyn. These are one reason why the area was included in the Helvellyn & Fairfield SSSI.</p><br>
<h2>Mining</h2><br>
<p>Two unsuccessful attempts to find lead ore in economic quantities on Helvellyn have been made.</p><br>
<p>Brown Cove Mine was high up at the head of Brown Cove, where some disused spoil heaps remain,</p><br>
<p>Helvellyn Mine or Wythburn Mine opened in 1839 by the gill between Whelpside and Helvellyn Screes. It was operated by a succession of different owners, driving five levels through mostly barren rock to explore three mineral veins. It finally closed in 1880 when Manchester Corporation acquired the land for the Thirlmere reservoir. Only a few hundred tons of galena came out of the mine; probably insufficient to cover its costs.</p><br>
<p>Little can be seen of the levels now for the entrances were destroyed when the mine closed, but several spoil heaps remain, one covering the gill, along with the old miners’ path which zigzags up the hillside, a self-acting incline to lower ore to the dressing floor, and the old winding-drum house. The narrow leat which once diverted water from Brownrigg Well into the gill beside the mine may also be seen, much higher up the fellside.</p><br>
<h2>Names</h2><br>
<p>Helvellyn. The earliest known record of the name dates from 1577, but early records are spelling variations of the modern name (such as Helvillon, Helvelon or Hell Belyn) rather than any help with the etymology. Various attempts to interpret the name have been made in the past. Some, misled by the present spelling, thought the final syllable was the Welsh word llyn, "lake". Richard Coates in 1988 proposed a Celtic derivation from the deduced Cumbric word hal, "moorland", and velin, the Cumbric equivalent of the Welsh word melyn meaning "yellow." Hel is a Welsh word meaning to gather, drive or hunt.</p><br>
<p>Recent place-name studies have accepted the "yellow moorland" derivation, but have struggled to understand how Helvellyn can be regarded as a yellow mountain. Colour, in the Celtic languages, is perceived differently from the way it is seen and described in modern English. For example, in Scottish Gaelic the spectrum of colours was "pastel rather than primary, gentle rather than bold." Colours were related to a landscape context in which blues, greens, greys and whites in particular were both more diverse and more differentiated than in English. People who relied on the system of transhumance for their livelihood gained the ability to assess the nutritional value of upland grasses from a distance before moving their stock to a summer shieling, and used appropriate colour terms for grasses which would become progressively more green as the spring advanced. Yellow, at least in Gaelic hill names, is not a bright colour. It describes hills which are distinguished by grasses such as Nardus stricta and Deschampsia flexuosa, both of which appear pale and bleached in winter. These grasses are common on the Helvellyn range, in an area where transhumance also used to be practiced. Nardus stricta in particular is an unpalatable and unproductive grass, and the Flora of Cumbria specifically notes a possible connection between areas of late snow cover and Nardus grassland at high altitudes in the Helvellyn range. A name describing the mountain as "pale yellow moorland" is therefore meaningful in a Celtic context.</p><br>
<p>Lower Man. The mountain has two tops, which used to be distinguished as Helvellyn Low Man (or Lower Man) and Helvellyn High Man (or Higher Man). Both are drawn and labelled on a panoramic view of the range found in Jonathan Otley&#39;s guidebook of 1823.</p><br>
<p>Striding Edge. An edge in mountain place-names is a steep escarpment, on either one side or (as here) on both sides. The first reference to Striding Edge was by Walter Scott in 1805 as Striden-edge. A map of 1823 called it Strathon Edge. It is possible that "Striding Edge" has replaced an earlier name, now lost.</p><br>
<p>Swirral Edge may be either "The precipitous ridge that causes giddiness" or "The precipitous ridge where the wind or snow swirls around." An edge is a steep escarpment, as above. Swirrel, a dialect variation of "swirl" has two possible explanations. It can be used to mean "giddiness, vertigo", but it can also be used of a place in the mountains where wind or snow swirls around.</p><br>
<p>Montagu Island is the largest of the South Sandwich Islands, located in the Weddell Sea off the coast of Antarctica. It is a part of the British Overseas Territory, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. It is located 60 km northeast from Bristol Island and 62 km south from Saunders Island.</p><br>
<p>The island was first sighted by James Cook in 1775, and named after John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich and the First Lord of the British Admiralty at the time of its discovery. The first recorded landing was made by the Norwegian whaler and explorer Carl Anton Larsen in 1908.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The desolate, uninhabited island measures approximately 12 by, with over 90% of its surface permanently covered in ice. The volcano Mount Belinda is its most notable geographic feature, rising to 1,370 m above sea level. It was believed to be inactive prior to the sighting of low-level ash emission and suspected lava effusion in 2002 by the British Antarctic Survey.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Belinda</h3><br>
<p>In November 2005, satellite images revealed that an eruption of Mount Belinda had created a 90 m molten river flowing to the northern shoreline of the island. The event has expanded the area of the island by 0.2 km², and provided some of the first scientific observations of volcanic eruptions taking place underneath an ice sheet.</p><br>
<p>Zavodovski Island is an uninhabited volcanic island in the Traversay Islands subgroup of the South Sandwich Islands. It lies 350 km southeast of South Georgia Island. It is the northernmost of the South Sandwich Islands and the nearest to South Georgia.</p><br>
<p>The island is home to around a million pairs of breeding chinstrap penguins, making it one of the world&#39;s largest penguin colonies.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Zavodovski Island was discovered and named by Russian Antarctic explorer Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen on Christmas Eve, 1819. Bellingshausen named it after Lieutenant Ivan Zavodovski, who was captain of his ship, the Imperial Russian Navy sloop-of-war Vostok.</p><br>
<p>A volcanic eruption was identified on the island on 2 May 2012, though the size of the eruption is unknown.</p><br>
<p>The volcano on the island erupted again in March 2016; by July, between one third and one half of the island was covered in ash, putting the penguin colonies at risk.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island is largely unglaciated. It is approximately 5 km across with a peak elevation of 551 m above sea level. The southernmost point is Fume Point, NE of which rises Noxious Bluff and the southwestern headland is Pacific Point. The easternmost cape is Pungent Point, the northernmost Reek Point, the northwesternmost Acrid Point and the westernmost Stench Point.</p><br>
<p>Mount Asphyxia, a stratovolcano also known as Mount Curry, dominates the western side of the island while the eastern half is a low-lying lava plain. It is an active volcano, with fresh lava reported in 1830 and numerous indications of activity since. Approximately 50% of the island is composed of tephra.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The island was the inspiration for the track (Somethings going down on) Zavodovski Island&#39; by London jazz ensemble Portico Quartet.</p><br>
<p>The penguin colony was featured in the "Frozen Seas" episode of the 2001 BBC nature documentary series The Blue Planet.</p><br>
<p>The penguin colony was also featured in the "Islands" episode of the 2016 BBC nature documentary series Planet Earth II.</p><br>
<p>Lake George  is an endorheic lake in south-eastern New South Wales, Australia. It is approximately 40 km north-east of Canberra located adjacent to the Federal Highway en route to and Sydney. Lake George is also the name of a locality on the western and southern edges of the lake, within the area of the Queanbeyan–Palerang Regional Council.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and hydrology</h2><br>
<p>Lake George is an endorheic lake, as it has no outflow of water to rivers and oceans.</p><br>
<p>The lake is believed to be more than a million years old. Originally, small streams drained its catchment into the Yass River, but then the Lake George Escarpment rose due to major crustal movement along a strong fault line, blocking this drainage and forming the lake. Lake George has in previous Ice Ages been much larger and deeper.</p><br>
<p>The thickness of sediment beneath the lake exceeds 250 m, according to a Bureau of Mineral Resources Canberra drilling programme in the 1982/83 summer. The oldest sediments, which lie some distance above the bedrock, were dated at 4–5 million years using spore and pollen analysis and magnetic reversal stratigraphy.</p><br>
<p>At 25 km long and 10 km wide, Lake George is long, largely flat and extremely shallow, with a very small catchment. Resultant evaporation rates as well as a tendency for strong winds to blow the water back on itself explain the mysterious filling and drying episodes on both short term (hours) and long term (years) time scales that have been observed.</p><br>
<p>The lake&#39;s depth when full can range from 1.5 -; however in many areas it is only around 0.8 - deep. Its deepest point has been measured as 7.5 m. When full, the lake holds about 500,000,000 m&sup3; of water. Between the late 1980s and mid-1990s, the lake lapped the Federal Highway on its western edge.</p><br>
<h2>Activities</h2><br>
<p>Lake George is the site of an experimental scientific wave behaviour platform established by researchers from the Civil Engineering department of the Australian Defence Force Academy in Canberra.</p><br>
<p>Lake George has been a popular fishery at times, after high water levels and stockings of fish.</p><br>
<p>Since the 1960s Hang gliders have been flown from the escarpment when easterly winds form standing waves. Pilots can then fly along the length of the lake. Unpowered model aircraft are also flown from this area, and powered models are flown from the lake floor.</p><br>
<p>Wine grapes are grown along the western edge of the lake, on the escarpment. Sheep are grazed on the lake when it is dry or nearly so.</p><br>
<h3>Public art</h3><br>
<p>In 2010, Canberra artists Alan and Julie Aston installed a herd of zebras on the lake adjacent to the highway stop commemorating Kevin "Dasher" Wheatley VC, used as a "Driver Reviver" site. They were named Stopper, Reviver, Survivor, and Dasher. They were a sensation, but the Government of New South Wales ordered that they be removed, following a complaint from the leaseholder of the land. They reappeared at Floriade in September 2010, along with a baby, George.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The local indigenous people called the lake Werriwa (originally spelled Weereewa in the journals of the explorers who noted the name), which may mean "bad water&quot even when full, the lake is one of the saltiest bodies of water in inland NSW, almost as saline as seawater. However, the name is also similar to regional indigenous word for eagle, which often fly there. The first European to discover the lake was Joseph Wild on 19 August 1820, and it was named for King George III on 28 October 1820 by Governor Lachlan Macquarie, who was touring the area as part of a Royal Commission inquiring into the condition of the Colony.</p><br>
<p>A large and beautiful billabong existed at the northern end of the lake, and in the 1850s it was stocked by the landowner with Murray cod fished out of the Molonglo River at Yarralumla. At some time the billabong overflowed and introduced Murray cod into the lake itself. They bred rapidly and, from the 1850s to the 1890s, Lake George abounded with them. The long Federation Drought commenced in the mid-1890s, and by 1902 the lake had dried out completely. In their search for water to survive in, the Murray cod flocked into the mouths of the few small creeks feeding the lake and were killed by the thousands.</p><br>
<p>One of the original 75 electoral divisions of the Australian House of Representatives in 1901 was named "Werriwa". By 1913, it no longer included the lake, and the electorate is currently centred in the south-western suburbs of Sydney.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1900s an area immediately to the east of the lake was surveyed as a possible site for the capital city of Australia. Instead, the Australian Capital Territory and city of Canberra were established some 30 km south-west of the lake.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, a wooden dummy ship was floated on the lake and used for bombing practice by the Royal Australian Air Force. It is possible that there is still unexploded ordnance settled into the lake bed.</p><br>
<p>On 8 July 1956 five cadets from the Royal Military College, Duntroon drowned in a yachting accident.</p><br>
<p>Due to the ongoing drought in New South Wales, Lake George dried out completely in November 2002, and remained so until February 2010 when it started to refill. The previous time the lake had dried out completely was during a severe drought in the 1940s, although it was partially dry in 1986, leaving large pools of water. When the lake is empty it is used by farmers to graze sheep and cattle. During September 2016, the lake filled for the first time since 1996. In the intervening years the level of water in the lake had never been as high as that in September 2016.</p><br>
<p>The unusual fluctuations in the water level have given rise to fanciful urban myths that the lake is somehow connected to lakes in Peru or South Africa, although NSW government ecologist Justin Nancarrow theorises that the lake may indeed be connected to the nearby Yass River by subterranean aquifers which pass under the surrounding escarpment, and that this connection may explain the salinity of the river.</p><br>
<h2>Wind-power generation</h2><br>
<p>The 140 MW Capital Wind Farm was completed in 2009 is located along the south-eastern side of Lake George.</p><br>
<h2>Locality</h2><br>
<p>Lake George is a locality covering territory on the western and southern edges of the lake, largely with the area of the Queanbeyan–Palerang Regional Council, although some hillside areas are in the Yass Valley Council. At the, it had a population of 98.</p><br>
<p>Arna  is a village on the eastern slopes of the Taygetus mountain range, at an altitude of 700 to 850 m.</p><br>
<p>Located in Laconia, in the Peloponnese, it used to form part of the municipal unit of Faris until 31 December 2010. Since 1 January 2011, as part of the Kallikratis reform, it is one of the local communities of the municipality of Sparta.</p><br>
<p>The nearest major towns are Gytheio, 35 km to the southeast, and Sparta, approximately 40 km to the north.</p><br>
<p>The area has a rich history. Near the village, at the Arkina site, a two Mycenaean-era domed burial chambers have been found, most likely built by Minyan or Boeotian settlers. Artefacts from many periods have also been found at Arna and Arkina, mostly ceramic containers. These findings support the conclusion that the site has been since ancient times a stop on the road connecting Sparta and Messenia.</p><br>
<p>The residents of Arna featured prominently in the Greek War of Independence (1821-1829). A close-by reminder of that struggle is the "Kolokotronis Cave", on the north slope of Mt. Annina. Folk tradition has it that Constantine Kolokotronis (father of famed hero Theodoros Kolokotronis) had sought refuge in this cave after being wounded defending the tower of the nearby village of Kastania, at the side of fellow revolutionary Panagiotaros Venetsanakos, a Maniot from Mesa Mani. He was discovered there the next day and killed; his body was thrown into the cave.</p><br>
<p>Today, Arna&#39;s population is on the decline, as is the population of the Greek countryside nationwide. The 1971 census counted 324 residents in the village; today, fewer than 150 remain. There are, however, positive signs of increased activity: the number of visits from emigrant Arniotes is on the rise, year round.</p><br>
<p>San Juan Island is the second-largest and most populous of the San Juan Islands in northwestern Washington, United States. It has a land area of 142.59 km²  and a population of 6,822 as of the 2000 census.</p><br>
<p>Washington State Ferries serves Friday Harbor, which is San Juan Island&#39;s major population center, the San Juan County seat, and the only incorporated town in the islands.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The name "San Juan" originates from the 1791 expedition of Francisco de Eliza, who named the archipelago Isla y Archiepelago de San Juan to honor his patron sponsor, Juan Vicente de Güemes Padilla Horcasitas y Aguayo, 2nd Count of Revillagigedo. One of the officers under Elizas command, Gonzalo López de Haro, was the first European to discover San Juan Island. During the Wilkes Expedition, American explorer Charles Wilkes renamed the island Rodgers Island; the Spanish name remained on British nautical charts and over time became the islands official name.</p><br>
<p>The island saw seasonal use for salmon fishing. The Hudson&#39;s Bay Company (HBC) established the first permanent, non-native settlement on the island on December 13, 1853, with the intention of creating a sheep farm. The island was also occupied by Native Americans, many of whom arrived seasonally for fishing. Both the British and Americans asserted control of the island. A small force of American soldiers was sent to the island over concern for this issue and with Native American raids on American settlers. The territorial dispute over this island and the rest of the San Juan Islands heightened when an American settler shot an HBC pig, starting the Pig War in 1859. The dispute was finally resolved in favor of the Americans in 1872.</p><br>
<h2>Island life</h2><br>
<p>San Juan Island has one weekly newspaper, and an online daily news site, is dotted with numerous farms, and is a tourist-driven economy.</p><br>
<p>Outside of Friday Harbor, the only major commercial establishment resort is the village of Roche Harbor, located on the northwest side of the island.</p><br>
<p>Other landmarks are the old English and American Camps at opposite ends of the island, which together comprise the San Juan Island National Historical Park, which commemorates the 1859 Pig War. Interpretive centers and reconstructed buildings, formal gardens, etc. recall the history of early European settlement in the area.</p><br>
<p>The University of Washington runs Friday Harbor Laboratories, a marine research lab and campus outside Friday Harbor. The campus has been extant since 1909 and has dormitories, a food service, and classrooms for holding lectures.</p><br>
<p>San Juan Island is considered a "small town" community, in that it is relatively quiet rural living with little distractions or incidents aside from tourism. One notable resident would be Lisa "Ivory" Moretti, a retired female professional wrestler of World Wrestling Entertainment fame.</p><br>
<p>It has a number of attractions including The Whale Museum; a contemporary Art Museum building completed in 2015; the San Juan Community Theatre; the Sculpture Park (located near Roche Harbor); Lime Kiln Park where on many days you can sit and watch orca pods swim by; and, its own resident camel, Mona.</p><br>
<h2>Schools</h2><br>
<p>Public schools are operated by the. It operates four schools: Friday Harbor Elementary School, Friday Harbor Middle School, Friday Harbor High School, Griffin Bay Schools (alternative high school, parent-partner home school program, on-line courses, and virtual school), and Stuart Island School (K-8). There are also two privately operated schools.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The waters surrounding San Juan Island are home to a variety of unique species including red sea urchins and pinto abalone. Though no commercial fishing of abalone has ever been allowed in this area, recreational fishing of abalone was outlawed in 1994. The National Marine Fisheries Service listed pinto abalone as a Species of Concern in 2004.</p><br>
<h3>Attractions</h3><br>
<p>Westcott Bay Shellfish Co. is one of the few small, family-run aquaculture farms in the San Juan Islands. The soul of Westcott Bay is a philosophy of community and environmental stewardship, and a respect for its unique natural and cultural history. Westcott Bay Shellfish Co. welcomes visitors by boat, vehicle or by hiking in. Visitors can buy osyters, clams and mussels while enjoying a picnic along the waterfront. Visitors can see first hand what an oyster operation looks like and can physically see where their oysters come from. Westcott Bay Shellfish Co. hand-raises Pacific Oysters, Manila clams and Mediterranean mussels on their tidelands in Westcott Bay.</p><br>
<p>Agioi Theodoroi  is a town and a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it is part of the municipality Loutraki-Perachora-Agioi Theodoroi, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 98.030 km.</p><br>
<p>Agioi Theodoroi is located around 12 km east of Corinth and about 63 km W of Athens in the easternmost part of Corinthia. Its population was 4,643 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The well known "Pefkakia", an organized beach is in the eastern part of the town with many pine trees and golden sand. The west is bounded by the massive Corinth Refinery which is the country&#39;s largest industrial complex operated by Motor Oil Hellas with the Kalamaki hills and mountains dominating the northern part, and the Attica boundary with Kineta to its east. The municipality is bounded with Loutraki in the west and Megara in the east. Agriculture used to dominate before the 1960s and the 1970s. Now most of the agricultural land is in the north and the east. Some of the houses are summer homes. It has a beautiful pedestrian street by the sea. Many coffee shops, restaurants and beach bars are lining the sea front of the town. The central avenue of the town is part of the old Athens - Corinth highway. It has many shops and services, supermarkets, pharmacies, banks, restaurants etc. and two historical churches.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Northwest of the city of Agioi Theodoroi, in 1961, archaeologists unearthed the ruins of ancient Krommyona. Important discoveries were made like a statue of Apollo, many black-figured vases, geometric and lakoeideis graves. According to Stravona, the entire coastal region of the Saronic and the Eleusinian Gulf was named Krommyona. Krommyona until the 6th century. BC belonged to Megara and then to Corinth.</p><br>
<p>There are two versions of the name of the ancient Krommyonas. The first version is that it got its name because of the onion production and the second version is that it got its name from the son of Poseidon Krommo.</p><br>
<p>The area was known from the legend of Faias, the fearsome boar that the legendary hero Theseus killed on his way from Trizina to Athens.</p><br>
<p>An important finding is also a small circular area which has not been determined whether it was a worship place or a small orchestra theater.</p><br>
<h3>Historical population</h3><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Agioi Theodoroi is served by motorway 8 (Athens - Corinth - Patras) and a rail station of Proastiakos suburban railway connecting it directly to the city of Athens, to the Athens International Airport and Corinth. Also intercity buses between Athens and the Peloponnese stop here and tourist buses during the summer period.</p><br>
<p>The Breakers is a Vanderbilt mansion located on Ochre Point Avenue, Newport, Rhode Island, United States on the Atlantic Ocean. The building became a National Historic Landmark in 1994, and is a contributing property to the Bellevue Avenue Historic District. It is owned and operated by the Preservation Society of Newport County and is open for visitation on a year-round basis.</p><br>
<p>The Breakers was built as the Newport summer home of Cornelius Vanderbilt II, a member of the wealthy United States Vanderbilt family. It is built in an architectural style based on the Italian Renaissance. Designed by renowned architect Richard Morris Hunt, with interior decoration by Jules Allard and Sons and Ogden Codman, Jr., the 70-room mansion has a gross area of 125,339 ft2 and 62,482 ft2 of living area on five floors. The house was constructed between 1893 and 1895. The Ochre Point Avenue entrance is marked by sculpted iron gates and the 30 ft walkway gates are part of a 12 ft limestone-and-iron fence that borders the property on all but the ocean side. The footprint of the house covers approximately 1 acre of the 14 acre estate on the cliffs overlooking the Atlantic Ocean. The Breakers is one of the most visited house museums in America and in 2016 had 472,700 visitations.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Cornelius Vanderbilt II purchased the grounds in 1885 for $450,000 ($ million today). When the previous mansion on the property owned by Pierre Lorillard IV burned on November 25, 1892, Vanderbilt commissioned famed architect Richard Morris Hunt to rebuild it in splendor. Vanderbilt insisted that the building be made as fireproof as possible and as such, the structure of the building used steel trusses and no wooden parts. He even required that the boiler be located away from the house, in an underground space below the front lawn.</p><br>
<p>The designers created an interior using marble imported from Italy and Africa, and rare woods and mosaics from countries around the world. It also included architectural elements (such as the library mantel) purchased from chateaux in France. Expansion was finally finished in 1892.</p><br>
<p>The Breakers is the architectural and social archetype of the "Gilded Age," a period when members of the Vanderbilt family were among the major industrialists of America. In 1895, the year of its completion, The Breakers was the largest, most opulent house in the Newport area. It represents the taste of an American upper class—socially ambitious but lacking a noble pedigree—who were determined to imitate and surpass the European aristocracy in lifestyle; a taste and ambition which was cynically noted by many members of the European upper-classes. However, this cynicism, coupled with assumptions of vulgarity, was not so deeply rooted that it prevented the daughters of these lavish houses and their associated dollars from marrying into the European aristocracy.</p><br>
<p>Vanderbilt died from a cerebral hemorrhage caused by a second stroke in 1899 at the age of 55, leaving The Breakers to his wife, Alice Gwynne Vanderbilt. She outlived her husband by 35 years and died at the age of 89 in 1934. In her will, The Breakers was given to her youngest daughter, Countess Gladys Széchenyi (1886–1965), essentially because Gladys lacked American property. Also, none of Alice&#39;s other children were interested in the property, while Gladys had always loved the estate.</p><br>
<p>The Breakers survived the great New England Hurricane of 1938 with minimal damage and minor flooding of the grounds.</p><br>
<p>In 1948, Gladys leased the high-maintenance property to The Preservation Society of Newport County for $1 per year. The Preservation Society bought The Breakers and approximately 90% of its furnishings in 1972 for $365,000 ($ million today) from Countess Sylvia Szapary, the daughter of Gladys. However, the agreement with the Society granted life tenancy to the Countess Szapary. Upon her death in 1998, The Preservation Society agreed to allow the family to continue to live on the third floor, which is not open to the public.</p><br>
<p>It is now the most-visited attraction in Rhode Island with approximately 400,000 visitors annually and is open year-round for tours.</p><br>
<h2>Gardens</h2><br>
<p>The pea-gravel driveway is lined with maturing pin oaks and red maples. The trees of The Breakers&#39; grounds act as screens that increase the sense of distance between The Breakers and its Newport neighbors. Among the more unusual imported trees are two examples of the Blue Atlas Cedar, a native of North Africa. Clipped hedges of Japanese yew and Pfitzer juniper line the tree-shaded foot paths that meander about the grounds. Informal plantings of arbor vitae, taxus, Chinese juniper, and dwarf hemlock provide attractive foregrounds for the walls that enclose the formally landscaped terrace. The grounds also contain several varieties of other rare trees, particularly copper and weeping beeches. These were hand-selected by Ernest W. Bowditch, a landscape architect and civil engineer based in the Boston area. Bowditch’s original pattern for the south parterre garden was determined from old photographs and laid out in pink and white alyssum and blue ageratum. The wide borders paralleling the wrought iron fence are planted with rhododendron, mountain laurel, dogwoods, and many other flowering shrubs that effectively screen the grounds from street traffic and give visitors a feeling of seclusion.</p><br>
<h2>Layout</h2><br>
<h3>Basement</h3><br>
<p>Laundry</p><br>
<p>Staff&#39;s restrooms</p><br>
<h3>First floor</h3><br>
<p>Entrance foyer</p><br>
<p>Gentlemen’s reception room</p><br>
<p>Ladies’ reception room</p><br>
<p>Great hall (50 ft × 50 ft × 50 ft) – Over each of the six doors that lead from the Great Hall are limestone figure groups celebrating humanity&#39;s progress in art, science, and industry: Galileo, representing science; Dante, representing literature; Apollo, representing the arts; Mercury, representing speed and commerce; Richard Morris Hunt, representing architecture; and Karl Bitter, representing sculpture.</p><br>
<p>Main staircase</p><br>
<p>Arcade</p><br>
<p>Library – The library has coffered ceilings painted with a dolphin, symbolic of the sea and hospitality, supported by Circassian walnut paneling impressed with gold leaf in the form of a leather-bound book. Between the ceiling and the gold paneling lies green Spanish leather embossed with gold, which continues into the library from the alcove where the inhabitants played cards. Inside the central library rest two busts; the bronze bust depicts William Henry Vanderbilt II, the oldest child of Cornelius II and Alice, who died of typhoid at the age of 21 while attending Yale university. There is now a library at Yale dedicated to William Henry Vanderbilt II. The second bust, in marble, is of Cornelius Vanderbilt II. The fireplace, taken from a 16th-century French chateau (Arnay-le-Duc, Burgundy), bears the inscription “I laugh at great wealth, and never miss it; nothing but wisdom matters in the end.”</p><br>
<p>Music room – The room’s open interior was used for recitals and dances. Its woodwork and furnishings were designed by Richard Van der Boyen and implemented by Jules Allard and Sons. The room has a gilt coffered ceiling lined with silver and gold, as well as an elliptical ceiling molding which bears the inscription in French of song, music, harmony and melody. Around the edge are the names of well-known composers. The fireplace is of Campan marble and the tables were designed to match. Mr. Vanderbilt was known to play the violin and Mrs. Vanderbilt the piano, which is a Second Empire French mahogany ormolu mounted piano.</p><br>
<p>Morning room – This room, a communal sitting room facing east to admit the morning sun, was used throughout the day, and was designed by the French company head Jules Allard. Placed around the room are platinum-leafed panels illustrated with 8 of the 9 muses. All interior woodwork and furnishings were designed and constructed in France, then shipped to America before assembly.</p><br>
<p>Lower loggia</p><br>
<p>Billiards room – This room, in the style of ancient Rome, was designed by Richard Morris Hunt and shows his competence in stone works. The great slabs of Cippolino marble from Italy form the walls, while rose alabaster arches provide contrast. Throughout the room there is an assortment of semi-precious stones, forming mosaics of acorns (the Vanderbilt family emblem, intended to show strength and longevity) and billiards balls on the top walls. The Renaissance style mahogany furniture provides further contrast with that of the colored marble.</p><br>
<p>Dining room – The 2,400 ft2 dining room is the house&#39;s grandest room and has 12 freestanding rose alabaster Corinthian columns supporting a colossal carved and gilt cornice. Rich in allegory, this room serves as an exemplar of what 19th-century technology could do with Roman ideas and 18th-century inspiration. On the ceiling, the goddess Aurora is depicted bringing in the dawn on a four-horse chariot as Greek figures pose majestically. A 16th-century style table of carved oak seats up to 34. Two Baccarat crystal chandeliers light the room with either gas or electricity, and 18, 22 or 24 carat gold gilt adheres to the wall through rabbit skin glue.</p><br>
<p>Breakfast room – The breakfast room, with its modified Louis XV style paneling and furnishings, was used for family morning meals. The furnishings, colors and gilt, although still extravagant in their use, contrast with the dining room’s more lavish decoration.</p><br>
<p>Pantry – A central dumbwaiter serves to bring additional china and glassware down from the mezzanine level. The pantry was also used for the storage of the family&#39;s table silver; this was brought with the family when they traveled, and stored in a steel vault. An intercom system allows the butler to direct the necessary servants to their needed locations, and each number on the caller corresponds to a number on a room.</p><br>
<p>Kitchen – The kitchen, unlike others in the time period, was situated on the first floor away from the main house to prevent the possibility of fires and cooking smells reaching the main parts of the house. The well-ventilated room supports a 21 ft cast iron stove, which heats up as a single element through a coal burning stove. The work table is made of zinc, a metal which served as the forerunner to stainless steel; in front of it is a marble mortar used to crush various ingredients. Ice cut from the local ponds kept the side rooms cool where food was stored, and facilitated a colder room for the assembling of confections. The kitchen and baking pantry each have one dumbwaiter that travels to the basement level where groceries were delivered and refuse removed.</p><br>
<h3>Second floor</h3><br>
<p>Mr. Vanderbilt&#39;s bedroom – As with the rest of the second floor, Ogden Codman designed this room, choosing Louis XIV Style. The bed is made of carved walnut finish and the mantel is of rouge royal marble, which hosts a large mirror above to bring more light into the room. There lies much memorabilia of family and friends, though Cornelius Vanderbilt II lived only a year at the Breakers in good health, before dying the following year, 1899, of a stroke.</p><br>
<p>Mrs. Vanderbilts bedroom – Designed as a perfect oval, Alice Vanderbilts room accommodates multiple doors, though they are cut into the wall to leave an undisturbed picture of geometric perfection, that connect the bedrooms. Alice had four closets to allow for her possible seven clothing changes per day, and a pager to administer and relegate family needs to the servants. This room also served as her study and had many bookshelves. Additionally, there are discreetly designed corridors that permitted female servants to maintain the laundry and costume needs of the family in a seemingly invisible fashion.</p><br>
<p>Miss Gertrude Vanderbilt&#39;s bedroom – Gertrude, daughter of Cornelius II and Alice, was a less conforming character who wished to be loved for her personality rather than her wealth and family, and later found her match in Harry Payne Whitney, and became an artist. Around the room there lie multiple pieces of her art work, including "The Engineer", which was inspired by her brother during World War I, "Laborer", and another that commemorates the American Expeditionary Force of World War I. She moved into The Breakers when she was 19. Above her bed is a portrait by Raimundo de Madrazo y Garreta of Miss Gertrude Vanderbilt at 5 years old, and beside that, to the left of the bed, is a sketch of her as a young woman.</p><br>
<p>Upper loggia – Serving as an informal living room, the upper loggia faces east, and opens to the Atlantic. During the summer, when needed, the glass doors overlooking the great hall could be opened to allow a breezeway. The walls are painted marble, and the ceiling is designed to depict three canopies that cover the sky. The lawn, designed by James and Ernest Bowdwitch, hosted many parties and was well kept by a gardening staff of 20, who also introduced and maintained various non-indigenous trees.</p><br>
<p>Guest bedroom – This room exemplifies the Louis XVI style through furniture, woodwork and light fixtures, with Neoclassical style abounding in the interior. The wall paneling has never been retouched, though the rest of the room has been restored by the preservation society.</p><br>
<p>Countess Szechenyi&#39;s bedroom – Designed by Ogden Codman in 18th-century simple elegance style, this room features an ivory and cream-colored design.</p><br>
<p>There are also two other rooms located on the second floor, possibly a nursery and a nanny&#39;s bedroom.</p><br>
<h3>Third floor</h3><br>
<p>The third floor contains eight bedrooms and a sitting room decorated in Louis XVI style walnut paneling by Ogden Codman. The north wing of the third-floor quarters were reserved for domestic servants. Using ceilings nearly 18 ft high, Richard Morris Hunt created two separate third floors to allow a mass aggregation of servant bed chambers. This was because of the configuration of the house, built in Italian Renaissance style, which included a pitched roof. Flat-roofed French classical houses built in the area at the time allowed a concealed wing for staff, whereas the Breakers&#39; design did not permit this feature.</p><br>
<p>A total of 30 bedrooms are located in the two third-floor staff quarters. Three additional bedrooms for the butler, chef, and visiting valet are located on the mezzanine "entresol" floor, located between the first and second floor just to the rear of the main kitchen.</p><br>
<h3>Attic floor</h3><br>
<p>The attic floor contained more staff quarters, general storage areas, and the innovative cisterns. One smaller cistern supplied hydraulic pressure for the 1895 Otis lift, still functioning in the house even though the house was wired for electricity in 1933. Two larger cisterns supplied fresh and salt water to the many bathrooms in the house.</p><br>
<p>Over the grand staircase is a stained glass skylight designed by artist John La Farge. Originally installed in the Vanderbilts&#39; 1 West 57th Street (New York City) townhouse dining room, the skylight was removed in 1894 during an expansion of the house.</p><br>
<h2>The architect</h2><br>
<p>The Breakers is also a definitive expression of Beaux-Arts architecture in American domestic design by one of the countrys most influential architects, Richard Morris Hunt. The Breakers—Hunts final project—is one of the few surviving works by Hunt that has not been demolished during the last century and is therefore valuable for its rarity as well as its architectural excellence. The Breakers made Hunt the "dean of American architecture", as he was called by his contemporaries, and helped define the era in American life that Hunt helped to shape.</p><br>
<h2>New welcome center controversy</h2><br>
<p>Recently, a debate has emerged regarding plans by The Preservation Society of Newport County to build a new welcome center within the propertys garden. Preservationist groups and the Vanderbilt family oppose this, asserting that it would alter a historical garden, thus contravening important principles of preservation and protection. The Newport Zoning Board approved the welcome center in January 2015. A Facebook group, called "Save the Breakers", has been created to prevent the construction. The Bellevue-Ochre Point Neighborhood Association has proposed an alternative location for the welcome center. The case is currently being presented to the Supreme Court as the Preservation Society has won its legal stances on two separate occasions on the project. Other issues spoken about in concern to this issue are the amount of litter produced by the Welcome Center and an increase in traffic. The courts up to this time have ruled that since the layout and plans for the Welcome Center are based upon preserving the historic landscape design of the National Historic Landmark, and that currently the immediate location and radius of the building is not attracting much more attention to the area that Salve Regina Universitys local buildings dont already contribute to, that in turn, the permit to build the Welcome Center was permitted with the concept of preservation and conservation tactfully in mind. On January 9, 2017, the RI Supreme Court ruled that the Newport Zoning Board of Review was the correct body to determine the permissibility of the project, moving the visitors Center one step closer to reality.</p><br>
<h2>Materials</h2><br>
<p>Foundation: brick, concrete and limestone</p><br>
<p>Trusses: steel</p><br>
<p>Walls: Indiana limestone</p><br>
<p>Roof: red terra cotta tile</p><br>
<p>Wall panels: platinum leaf (eight reliefs of mythological figures only)</p><br>
<p>They used Gold leaf on the design.</p><br>
<p>Other: marble (plaques), wrought iron (gates & fences)</p><br>
<p>Lysefjord or Lysefjorden is a fjord located in the Ryfylke area in southwestern Norway. The 42 km long fjord lies in Forsand municipality in Rogaland county, about 25 km east of the city of Stavanger. The name means light fjord, and is said to be derived from the lightly coloured granite rocks along its sides. It is particularly well-known by the huge Preikestolen cliff overlooking the fjord, which is a major tourist destination for the region. The fairly isolated village of Lysebotn lies at the eastern end of the fjord and the villages of Forsand and Oanes both lie at the western end of the fjord near the Lysefjord Bridge, the only crossing of the fjord.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The fjord was carved by the action of glaciers in the ice ages and was flooded by the sea when the later glaciers retreated. The geology of Lysefjorden was thoroughly investigated and described by Professor Bjørn G. Andersen in his Master&#39;s thesis (1954) "Om isens tilbaketrekking i området mellom Lysefjorden og Jøsenfjorden i Ryfylke" (On the glacial retreat in the area between the Lysefjorden and Jøsenfjorden in Ryfylke).</p><br>
<p>End to end, it measures 42 km with rocky walls falling nearly vertically over 1,000 m into the water. Not only is the fjord long and narrow, it is in places as deep as the mountains are high. Starting at a depth of only 13 m deep where it meets the sea near Forsand village, the Lysefjord then heads inland and drops to a depth of over 400 m below the Preikestolen.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>Because of the inhospitable, mountainous terrain, the fjord is only lightly populated and only has two villages on its length - Forsand and Lysebotn, located at opposite ends of the fjord. There is a small farming area on the north shore of the fjord, about halfway between the two ends. That farm area is accessible by road from the village of Årdal over the mountains to the north. There are a few other very small, scattered settlements along the fjord, but those are only accessible by boat along the fjord. There are no roads along the fjord since the sides of the fjord are too steep for roads.</p><br>
<p>Lysebotn, at the far eastern end of the fjord, is largely populated by workers at the nearby hydroelectric plants at Lyse and Tjodan, both built inside the mountains. At the Lyse plant, the water falls 620 m to the turbines, producing up to 210,000 kW of electricity. At Tjodan, the water falls 896 m to yield an output of 110,000 kW. The two power plants provide electricity for more than 100,000 people. A spectacular road which rises almost 900 m through a series of 27 hairpin bends including a long hairpin tunnel inside the mountain is the only road access to Lysebotn from the outside world.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Lysefjorden is an extremely popular tourist attraction and day trip from the nearby city of Stavanger, from where cruise ships travel the full distance of the fjord. As well as the extraordinary scenery of the fjord itself, two points along its length are popular side trips. The towering cliff of Preikestolen, located above the fjord with a vertical drop of 604 m, can be seen from the fjord, but is more impressive from above. At the end of the fjord lies the 1,110 m tall Kjerag mountain, a popular hiking destination with even more spectacular drops. The Kjeragbolten is a famous boulder located at the Kjerag mountain. BASE jumping is legally allowed along the cliffs of the fjord.</p><br>
<h2>Toilers of the Sea</h2><br>
<p>French writer Victor Hugo wrote the novel, Toilers of the Sea, in which he admires the scenery of the fjord after a visit here in 1866.</p><br>
<p>Aetokremnos is a rock shelter near Limassol on the southern coast of Cyprus. It is situated on a steep cliff site c. 40 m above the Mediterranean sea. The name means "Cliff of the eagles" in Greek. Around 40 m&sup2; have been excavated. Of the four layers documented, the third is sterile.</p><br>
<p>The site contains mainly bones of the late Holocene dwarf fauna, such as pygmy elephants (Elephas cypriotes), the Cyprus Dwarf Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus minor) and artifacts (c. 1,000 flints including thumbnail scrapers of the Mesolithic type). There are no bones that show marks of butchery, but an unusually high frequency (30%) of burned bones. The pygmy hippos make up c. 74% of the bones, followed by fish remains (25%) and birds, mainly bustards. Dwarf elephants are comparatively rare (3 individuals). The presence of fallow deer (4 bones) and pig (13 bones) is puzzling, since these animals are thought to have been introduced only in the Neolithic period.</p><br>
<p>According to the excavators, hearth remains are found in the layer containing the bone beds of the extinct megafauna. This would make it the oldest site on the island and evidence of Epipalaeolithic occupation. The original 31 radiocarbon dates put the date of the bones at c. 12,500 years BP. and suggest a short-term occupation. These dates have been challenged as the excavators considered the nine bone dates to be the least reliable and did not agree with the dates of the stratigraphy where they were found. As of 2013 there are now 36 radiocarbon dates of which 13 were taken from animal bones (pig and hippo). A 2013 report states that even discarding these and relying on the other 23 determinations on charcoal, sediment and shell "we reaffirm our original interpretation of a relatively short occupation of some 300 years centered around 11,775 years BP, with a range of 11,652 to 11,955 years BP at one standard deviation, or 11,504 to 12,096 years BP at two standard deviations. This is in general accord with Manning’s (2013:501 to 503) masterful compilation of all early Cypriot radiocarbon determinations, in which he places Aetokremnos within an approximate 12,950 to 10,950 years BP range while also preferring a somewhat longer occupation than we presented."</p><br>
<p>There are other deposits with bones of pygmy elephants and hippopotami on the island, but these do not contain artifacts.</p><br>
<p>Mount Teide  is a volcano on Tenerife in the Canary Islands, Spain. Its 3,718-metre  summit is the highest point in Spain and the highest point above sea level in the islands of the Atlantic.</p><br>
<p>If measured from the ocean floor, it is at 7,500 m (24,600 ft) the highest volcano in the world base-to-peak outside of the Hawaiian Islands, and is described by UNESCO and NASA as Earths third-tallest volcanic structure. Teides elevation makes Tenerife the tenth highest island in the world. Teide is an active volcano: its most recent eruption occurred in 1909 from the El Chinyero vent on the northwestern Santiago rift. The United Nations Committee for Disaster Mitigation designated Teide a Decade Volcano because of its history of destructive eruptions and its proximity to several large towns, of which the closest are Garachico, Icod de los Vinos and Puerto de la Cruz. Teide, Pico Viejo and Montaña Blanca form the Central Volcanic Complex of Tenerife.</p><br>
<p>The volcano and its surroundings comprise Teide National Park, which has an area of 18,900 hectare and was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO on June 28, 2007. Teide is the most visited natural wonder of Spain, the most visited national park in Spain and Europe and – by 2015 – the eighth most visited in the world, with some 3 million visitors yearly. In 2016, it was visited by 4,079,823 visitors and tourists reaching a historical record. A major international astronomical observatory is located on the slopes of the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Before the 1496 Spanish colonization of Tenerife, the native Guanches called the volcano Echeyde, which in their legends referred to a powerful figure leaving the volcano, which could turn into hell. El Pico del Teide is the modern Spanish name.</p><br>
<h2>Legends</h2><br>
<p>Teide was a sacred mountain for the aboriginal Guanches, so it was considered a mythological mountain, as Mount Olympus was to the ancient Greeks. According to legend, Guayota (the devil) kidnapped Magec (the god of light and the sun) and imprisoned him inside the volcano, plunging the world into darkness. The Guanches asked their supreme god Achamán for clemency, so Achamán fought Guayota, freed Magec from the bowels of the mountain, and plugged the crater with Guayota. It is said that since then, Guayota has remained locked inside Teide. When going on to Teide during an eruption, it was customary for the Guanches to light bonfires to scare Guayota. Guayota is often represented as a black dog, accompanied by his host of demons (Tibicenas).</p><br>
<p>The Guanches also believed that Teide held up the sky. Many hiding places found in the mountains contain the remains of stone tools and pottery. These have been interpreted as being ritual deposits to counter the influence of evil spirits, like those made by the Berbers of Kabylie. The Guanches believed the mountain to be the place that housed the forces of evil and the most evil figure, Guayota.</p><br>
<p>Guayota shares features similar to other powerful deities inhabiting volcanoes, such as the goddess Pele of Hawaiian mythology, who lived in the Kīlauea volcano and was regarded by the native Hawaiians as responsible for the eruptions of the volcano.</p><br>
<h2>Formation</h2><br>
<p>The stratovolcanoes Teide and Pico Viejo (Old Peak, although it is in fact younger than Teide) are the most recent centres of activity on the volcanic island of Tenerife, which is the largest (2,058 km&sup2;) and highest (3,718 m) island in the Canaries. It has a complex volcanic history. The formation of the island and the development of the current Teide volcano took place in the five stages shown in the diagram on the right.</p><br>
<h3>Stage one</h3><br>
<p>Like the other Canary Islands, and volcanic ocean islands in general, Tenerife was built by accretion of three large shield volcanoes, which developed in a relatively short period. This early shield stage volcanism formed the bulk of the emerged part of Tenerife. The shield volcanoes date back to the Miocene and early Pliocene and are preserved in three isolated and deeply eroded massifs: Anaga (to the northeast), Teno (to the northwest) and Roque del Conde (to the south). Each shield was apparently constructed in less than three million years, and the entire island in about eight million years.</p><br>
<h3>Stages two and three</h3><br>
<p>The initial juvenile stage was followed by a period of 2–3 million years of eruptive quiescence and erosion. This cessation of activity is typical of the Canaries; La Gomera, for example, is currently at this stage. After this period of quiescence, the volcanic activity became concentrated within two large edifices: the central volcano of Las Cañadas, and the Anaga massif. The Las Cañadas volcano developed over the Miocene shield volcanoes and may have reached 40 km in diameter and 4,500 m in height.</p><br>
<h3>Stage four</h3><br>
<p>Around 160–220 thousand years ago the summit of the Las Cañadas I volcano collapsed, creating the Las Cañadas (Ucanca) caldera. Later, a new stratovolcano, Las Cañadas II, formed in the vicinity of Guajara and then catastrophically collapsed. Another volcano, Las Cañadas III, formed in the Diego Hernandez sector of the caldera. All of the Las Cañadas volcanoes attained a maximum altitude similar to that of Teide (which is sometimes referred to as the Las Cañadas IV volcano).</p><br>
<p>Two theories on the formation of the 16 x caldera exist. The first states that the depression is the result of a vertical collapse of the volcano triggered by the emptying of shallow magma chambers at around sea level under the Las Cañadas volcano after large-volume explosive eruptions. The second theory is that the caldera was formed by a series of lateral gravitational collapses similar to those described in Hawaii. Evidence for the latter theory has been found in both onshore observations and marine geology studies.</p><br>
<h3>Stage five</h3><br>
<p>From around 160,000 years ago until the present day, the stratovolcanoes of Teide and Pico Viejo formed within the Las Cañadas caldera.</p><br>
<h2>Historical eruptions</h2><br>
<p>Teide last erupted in 1909 from the El Chinyero vent, on the Santiago Ridge. Historical volcanic activity on the island is associated with vents on the Santiago or northwest rift (Boca Cangrejo in 1492, Montañas Negras in 1706, Narices del Teide or Chahorra in 1798 and El Chinyero in 1909) and the Cordillera Dorsal or northeast rift (Fasnia in 1704, Siete Fuentes and Arafo in 1705). The 1706 Montañas Negras eruption destroyed the town and principal port of Garachico, as well as several smaller villages.</p><br>
<p>Historical activity associated with the Teide and Pico Viejo stratovolcanoes occurred in 1798 from the Narices del Teide on the western flank of Pico Viejo. Eruptive material from Pico Viejo, Montaña Teide and Montaña Blanca partially fills the Las Cañadas caldera. The last explosive eruption involving the central volcanic centre was from Montaña Blanca around 2000 years ago. The last eruption within the Las Cañadas caldera occurred in 1798 from the Narices del Teide or Chahorra (Teide&#39;s Nostrils) on the western flank of Pico Viejo. The eruption was predominantly strombolian in style and most of the lava was ʻAʻā. This lava is visible beside the Vilaflor–Chio road.</p><br>
<p>Christopher Columbus reported seeing "a great fire in the Orotava Valley" as he sailed past Tenerife on his voyage to discover the New World in 1492. This was interpreted as indicating that he had witnessed an eruption there. Radiometric dating of possible lavas indicates that in 1492 no eruption occurred in the Orotava Valley, but one did occur from the Boca Cangrejo vent.</p><br>
<p>The last summit eruption from Teide occurred about the year 850 CE, and this eruption produced the "Lavas Negras" or "Black Lavas" that cover much of the flanks of the volcano.</p><br>
<p>About 150,000 years ago, a much larger explosive eruption occurred, probably of Volcanic Explosivity Index 5. It created the Las Cañadas caldera, a large caldera at about 2,000 m above sea level, around 16 km from east to west and 9 km from north to south. At Guajara, on the south side of the structure, the internal walls rise as almost sheer cliffs from 2,100 to 2,715 m. The 3,718 m summit of Teide itself, and its sister stratovolcano Pico Viejo (3,134 m), are both situated in the northern half of the caldera and are derived from eruptions later than this prehistoric explosion.</p><br>
<h2>Potential eruptions</h2><br>
<p>Future eruptions may include pyroclastic flows and surges similar to those that occurred at Mount Pelée, Merapi, Vesuvius, Etna, Soufrière Hills, Mount Unzen and elsewhere. During 2003, there was an increase in seismic activity at the volcano and a rift opened on the north-east flank. No eruptive activity occurred but a volume of material - possibly liquid, was emplaced into the edifice and is estimated to have a volume of ~10 m. Such activity can indicate that magma is rising into the edifice, but is not always a precursor to an eruption.</p><br>
<p>Teide additionally is considered structurally unstable and its northern flank has a distinctive bulge. The summit of the volcano has a number of small active fumaroles emitting sulfur dioxide and other gases, including low levels of hydrogen sulfide.</p><br>
<p>A study in 2009 concluded that Teide will probably erupt violently in the future, and that its structure is similar to that of Vesuvius and Etna.</p><br>
<h2>Major climbs</h2><br>
<p>In a publication of 1626, Sir Edmund Scory, who probably stayed on the island in the first decades of the 17th century, gives a description of Teide, in which he notes the suitable paths to the top and the effects the considerable height causes to the travellers, indicating that the volcano had been accessed via different routes before the 17th century. In 1715 the English traveler J. Edens and his party made the ascent and reported their observations in the journal of the Royal Society in London.</p><br>
<p>After the Enlightenment, most of the expeditions that went to East Africa and the Pacific had Teide as one of the most rewarding targets. The expedition of Lord George Macartney, George Staunton and John Barrow in 1792 almost ended in tragedy, as a major snowstorm and rain swept over them and they failed to reach the peak of Teide, just barely getting past Montaña Blanca.</p><br>
<p>During an expedition to Kilimanjaro, the German adventurer Hans Heinrich Joseph Meyer visited Teide in 1894 to observe ice conditions on the volcano. He described the two mountains as "two kings, one rising in the ocean and the other in the desert and steppes".</p><br>
<p>More recently in November 2017, Gema Hassen-Bey became the first Paralympic athlete in the world in a wheelchair to reach 3,000 meters altitude with only the momentum of her arms. Initially, Gema wanted to reach the top of Teide, although, due to weather conditions, she could not meet this objective.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The lava flows on the flanks of Teide weather to a very thin but nutrient- and mineral-rich soil that supports a wide variety of plant species. Vascular flora consists of 168 plant species, 33 of which are endemic to Tenerife.</p><br>
<p>Forests of Canary Island Pine (Pinus canariensis) with Canary Island juniper (Juniperus cedrus) occur from 1000 to 2100 m, covering the middle slopes of the volcano and reaching an alpine tree line 1,000 m lower than that of continental mountains at similar latitudes. Within the Las Cañadas caldera and at higher altitudes, plant species endemic to the Teide National Park include: the Teide white broom (Spartocytisus supranubius), which has white flowers; Descurainia bourgaeana, a shrubby crucifer with yellow flowers; the Canary Island wallflower (Erysimum scoparium), which has violet flowers; and the Teide bugloss (Echium wildpretii), whose red flowers form a pyramid up to 3 m in height. The Teide daisy (Argyranthemum teneriffae) can be found at altitudes close to 3,600 m above sea level, and the Teide violet (Viola cheiranthifolia) can be found right up to the summit, making it the highest flowering plant in Spain.</p><br>
<p>These plants are adapted to the tough environmental conditions on the volcano, such as high altitude, intense sunlight, extreme temperature variations, and lack of moisture. Adaptations include hemispherical forms, a downy or waxy cover, a reduction of the exposed leaf area, and a high flower production. Flowering takes place in the late spring or early summer, in May and June.</p><br>
<p>Teide National Park contains a large number of invertebrate species, over 40% of which are endemic species, and 70 of which are found only in the National Park. The invertebrate fauna includes spiders, beetles, dipterans, hemipterans, and hymenopterae.</p><br>
<p>In contrast, Teide National Park has only a limited variety of vertebrate fauna. Ten species of bird nest there, including the blue chaffinch (Fringilla teydea teydea), Berthelot&#39;s pipit (Anthus berthelotii berthelotii), the Atlantic canary (Serinus canaria) and a subspecies of kestrel (Falco tinnunculus canariensis).</p><br>
<p>Three endemic reptile species are found in the park: the Canary Island lizard (Gallotia galloti galloti), the Canary Island wall gecko (Tarentola delalandii), and the Canary Island skink (Chalcides viridanus viridanus).</p><br>
<p>The only mammals native to the park are bats, the most common of which is Leisler’s bat (Nyctalus leisleri). Other mammals, such as the mouflon, the rabbit, the house mouse, the black rat, the feral cat, and the North African hedgehog, have all been introduced to the park.</p><br>
<h2>Scientific use</h2><br>
<p>Teide National Park is a useful volcanic reference point for studies related to Mars because of the similarities in their environmental conditions and geological formations. In 2010 a research team tested the Raman instrument at Las Cañadas del Teide in anticipation of its use in the 2016–2018 ESA-NASA ExoMars expedition. In June 2011 a team of researchers from the UK visited the park to test a method for looking for life on Mars and to search for suitable places to test new robotic vehicles in 2012.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>The volcano and its surroundings, including the whole of the Las Cañadas caldera, are protected in the Teide National Park. Access is by a public road running from northeast to southwest across the caldera. TITSA runs a return service to Teide once a day from both Puerto de la Cruz and Playa de las Americas. The park has a parador (hotel) and a small chapel. A cable car goes from the roadside at 2,356 m most of the way to the summit, reaching 3,555 m, carrying up to 38 passengers (34 in a high wind) and taking eight minutes to reach the summit. Queues can exceed two hours in peak season. Access to the summit itself is restricted; a free permit is required to climb the last 200 m. Numbers are normally restricted to 200 per day.</p><br>
<p>Several footpaths take hikers to the upper cable car terminal, and then onto the summit (with the permit). The most popular route is via the Refugio de Altavista, however these are demanding hikes requiring at least 4–5 hours of ascent.</p><br>
<p>Because of the altitude, the air is significantly thinner than at sea level. This can cause people (especially with heart or lung conditions) to become light-headed or dizzy, to develop altitude sickness, and in extreme cases to lose consciousness. The only treatment is to return to lower altitudes and acclimatise.</p><br>
<h2>Astronomical observatory</h2><br>
<p>An astronomical observatory is located on the slopes of the mountain, taking advantage of the altitude (above most clouds), good weather and stable seeing from the site. The Teide Observatory is operated by the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. It includes solar, radio and microwave telescopes, in addition to traditional optical night-time telescopes.</p><br>
<h2>Symbol</h2><br>
<p>Teide is the main symbol of Tenerife and the most emblematic natural monument of the Canary Islands. An image of Teide appears gushing flames at the centre of Tenerife&#39;s coat of arms. Above the volcano appears St. Michael, the patron saint of Tenerife. The flag colors of the island are dark blue, traditionally identified with the sea that surrounds the island, and white for the whiteness of the snow-covered peaks of Mount Teide during winter. The logo of the Cabildo de Tenerife (governing body of the island) includes a symbol of Teide in eruption.</p><br>
<p>Teide has been depicted frequently throughout history, from the earliest engravings made by European conquerors to typical Canarian craft objects, on the back of 1000-peseta notes, in oil paintings and on postcards.</p><br>
<h2>Mountain of the Moon</h2><br>
<p>Mons Pico, one of the Montes Teneriffe range of lunar mountains in the inner ring of the Mare Imbrium, was named by Johann Hieronymus Schröter after the Pico von Teneriffe, an 18th-century name for Teide.</p><br>
<p>Chautauqua Lake is located entirely within Chautauqua County, New York, United States. The lake is approximately 17 mi long and 2 mi wide at its greatest width. The surface area is approximately 13,000 acre. The maximum depth is about 78 ft. The shoreline is about 41.1 mi of which all but 2.6 mi are privately owned.</p><br>
<p>The lake&#39;s name comes from the now-extinct Erie language. Because the Erie people were defeated in the Beaver Wars before a comprehensive study of their language could be made, its meaning remains unknown and a source of speculation, with two longstanding folk translations being “bag tied in the middle” and “place where fish are taken out.”</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>While the lake has a similar geologic structure (a very long, narrow valley) to the Finger Lakes in the east, it is not considered one of the Finger Lakes. Chautauqua Lake runs perpendicular to the westernmost of those lakes (much like an opposable thumb), lies in a different watershed, and was likely formed by a different process.</p><br>
<p>Chautauqua Lake, at an elevation of 1,308 ft above sea level, is higher than any of the Finger Lakes. It is also one of the highest navigable lakes in North America.</p><br>
<p>The water from the lake drains to the south, emptying first into the Chadakoin River in Jamestown, New York before traveling east into the Conewango Creek. The creek flows south, entering the Allegheny River in Warren, Pennsylvania and the Ohio River in Pittsburgh, instead of moving north into the Great Lakes. The drainage area is about 180 square miles.</p><br>
<p>At the southern end of the lake is the City of Jamestown while the Village of Mayville is located at the northern end. Other communities located on the lake are Bemus Point, Maple Springs, Lakewood, Celoron, and Chautauqua, the site of the influential Chautauqua Institution founded in 1874. There are many other settlements located on the lake, including Fluvanna, Greenhurst, Dewittville, Stow, and Ashville Bay.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism and recreation</h2><br>
<p>The lake is used primarily for recreation, such as boating and fishing, and tourism. The majority of tourists flock to the Chautauqua Institution, which contains a wide variety of stores and restaurants and is home to live music entertainment and many public lectures during the summer months. Chautauqua Lake is known for its muskellunge fishing and sailing. There are two very popular boating locations on the lake, "Sandy Bottoms", and Long Point State Park, located near Maple Springs. On busy, warm weekends, it is not uncommon to see nearly 100 boats in this area of the lake. Every fourth of July, fireworks are launched from communities around the lake.</p><br>
<p>There is one bridge that connects the opposite sides of the lake, the Veterans Memorial Bridge (also known as the Chautauqua Lake Bridge). The structure was completed on October 30, 1982 and joins Bemus Point to Stow on I-86 (at the time known as Route 17). Prior to the construction of the bridge, the only means for cars to cross the lake was facilitated by the Bemus Point-Stow ferry, a nine car cable guided ferry, which still operates during the summer months and has become more of a tourist attraction. The cost of the ferry ride is free, though a donation is appreciated, and it is operated by the Sea Lion Project Ltd.</p><br>
<p>The lake is the home of the Chautauqua Belle, a replica of a sternwheeler steamboat constructed in 1975 for the US Bicentennial, which offers sightseeing cruises on the lake.</p><br>
<p>The Summer Wind, The Village Casino, and The Italian Fishermen are additional attractions on the lake during the summer months. Visitors can schedule a lake tour or dinner cruise on The Summer Wind, a floating leisure shuttle departs from Celoron at the southern end of the lake. Bemus Point offers The Village Casino, a restaurant and bar that can easily be reached by boat. Boaters are able to park at the Casino&#39;s dock where waitresses will serve them from their location. This establishment also has historical value in the area and offers nightlife on the lake. (Contrary to its name, the Casino does not offer gambling.) The Italian Fishermen, also in Bemus Point, offers fine dining and a floating stage during the summer with live bands and events scheduled at various times throughout the warm season.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Chautauqua Lake is mentioned in at least one episode of I Love Lucy. Lucille Ball (a native of nearby Celoron, New York), playing the role of Lucy Ricardo, finds a stuffed and mounted fish in a trunk in her attic and recalls that Ricky caught it at Chautauqua Lake, and was so thrilled that he had mounted and kept it.</p><br>
<p>Chautauqua Lake is of major significance in the novel Wish You Were Here by Stewart O&#39;Nan, published in 2002. The German translation of the title was Abschied von Chautauqua, which means "A Farewell from Chautauqua".</p><br>
<p>Pico de Orizaba, also known as Citlaltépetl =star, and tepētl=mountain), is a stratovolcano, the highest mountain in Mexico and the third highest in North America, after Denali  of the United States and Mount Logan of Canada. It rises 5,636 m above sea level in the eastern end of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, on the border between the states of Veracruz and Puebla. The volcano is currently dormant but not extinct, with the last eruption taking place during the 19th century. It is the second most prominent volcanic peak in the world after Africa&#39;s Mount Kilimanjaro.</p><br>
<h2>Toponymy</h2><br>
<p>Pico de Orizaba overlooks the valley and city of Orizaba, from which it gets its name. The name Citlaltépetl is not used by Nahuatl speakers of the Orizaba area, who instead call it Istaktepetl (Iztactépetl in the traditional orthography for Classical Nahuatl), or White Mountain. In the earliest mention of the volcano, it was referred to by the natives during the Pre-Columbian Era as Poyautécatl, which means "the ground that reaches the clouds".</p><br>
<p>Citlaltépetl was the common name in the Náhuatl language when the Spanish arrived in Mexico. Citlaltépetl comes from the Náhuatl citlalli (star) and tepētl (mountain) and thus means "Star Mountain". This name is thought to be based on the fact that the snow-covered peak can be seen year round for hundreds of kilometers throughout the region. A legend from the city of Coscomatepec tells of how the planet Venus can be seen settling into the crater of Citlaltépetl. During the colonial era, the volcano was also known as Cerro de San Andrés due to the nearby settlement of San Andrés Chalchicomula at its base.</p><br>
<p>A third name, Poyauhtecatl, which means "the one that colors or illuminates", has also been recorded. This name was given by the Tlaxcaltecas in memory of their lost country.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The peak of Citlaltépetl rises dramatically to an elevation of 5,636 m above sea level; it has a topographic prominence of 4,922 m. Regionally dominant, Pico de Orizaba is the highest peak in Mexico and the highest volcano in North America; it is also the third highest peak in North America after Denali and Mount Logan. Orizaba is ranked 7th in the world in topographic prominence. It is the second most prominent volcanic peak in the world after Africa&#39;s Mount Kilimanjaro, and the volcano is also ranked 16th in the world for topographic isolation. About 110 km to the west of the port of Veracruz, its peak is visible to ships approaching the port in the Gulf of Mexico, and at dawn rays of sunlight strike the Pico while Veracruz still lies in shadow.</p><br>
<p>The topography of Pico de Orizaba is asymmetrical from the center of the crater; the eastern face is the steepest side of the volcano and the northwestern face the most gradual side. The gradual slopes of the northwestern face of the volcano allows for the presence of large glaciers and is the most traveled route to take for hikers traveling to the summit.</p><br>
<h2>Glaciers</h2><br>
<p>Pico de Orizaba is one of only three volcanoes in México that continue to support glaciers and is home to the largest glacier in Mexico, Gran Glaciar Norte. Orizaba has nine known glaciers: Gran Glaciar Norte, Lengua del Chichimeco, Jamapa, Toro, Glaciar de la Barba, Noroccidental, Occidental, Suroccidental, and Oriental. The equilibrium line altitude (ELA) is not known for Orizaba. Snow on the south and southeast sides of the volcano melts quickly because of solar radiation, but lower temperatures on the northwest and north sides allow for glaciers. The insolation angle and wind redeposition on the northwest and north sides allow for constant accumulation of snow providing a source for the outlet glaciers. On the north side of Orizaba, the Gran Glaciar Norte fills the elongated highland basin and is the source for seven outlet glaciers. The main glacier extends 3.5 km north of the crater rim, has a surface area of about 9.08 km&sup2; descending from 5,650 m to about 5,000 m. It has a slightly irregular and stepped profile that is caused in part by the configuration of the bedrock. Most crevasses show an ice thickness of approximately 50 m.</p><br>
<p>The west side of Gran Glaciar Norte generates five outlet glaciers. From north to south, the first two, Glaciar del Toro and Glaciar dela Barba, are hanging cliff or icefall glaciers, reaching the tops of giant lava steps at 4,930 m and 5,090 m, respectively. Then they then descend 200 to 300 m farther down into the heads of stream valleys as huge ice blocks but are not regenerated there. About 1 km, Glaciar Noroccidental, a small outlet glacier 300 m long, drains away from the side of Gran Glaciar Norte at about 5,100 m and draws down the ice surface a few tens of meters over a distance of 500 m, descending to 4,920 m with a gradient of 255 m/km. Another 1 km still farther south, Glaciar Occidental breaks away from Gran Glaciar Norte west of the summit crater at about 5,175 m as a steep, 1 km long glacier having a gradient of 270 m/km that ends at 4,930 m. From the southwest corner of the mountain, another outlet glacier, Glaciar Suroccidental, 1.6 km long, flows from Gran Glaciar Norte at 5,250 m with a gradient of 200 m/km, which also ends at 4,930 m in a long smooth surface.</p><br>
<p>East of the summit cone, a separate steep niche glacier, Glaciar Oriental, 1.2 km long and having a gradient of 440 m/km, flows down the mountainside from about 5600 to 5070 m; it contains many crevasses and seracs and is the most difficult glacier to climb. Glacier Oriental had a surface area of about 420,000 m&sup2; in 1958, which makes the total area of glaciers and firn field on Citlaltépetl about 9.5 km&sup2;. No earlier historical record of glacier tongue activity (advance or recession) is known for Citlaltépetl’s glaciers. Although the Gran Glaciar Norte ice cap is covered with snow, it is possible to see the seven outlet glaciers on the irregular west margin of the ice cap, especially Glaciar de Jamapa and Glaciar Occidental.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The climate of Pico de Orizaba, like the Sierra Madre Oriental, varies greatly due to the change of elevation and prevailing winds. Due to the latitude and the extreme rugged terrain the volcano experiences many microclimates. Vegetation varies from tropical at the lower elevations on the eastern face to alpine forests in the higher elevations.</p><br>
<p>Large amounts of precipitation fall on the eastern face of the volcano due to adiabatic cooling and condensation from the trade winds that bring moisture off the Gulf of Mexico. The eastern face is frequently covered by fog and low cloud cover. The climate of the eastern face varies from tropical (Af) at the lower elevations to subtropical highland (Cwb) at the higher elevations, with mild variation in temperatures and an average annual rainfall of 1,600 mm.</p><br>
<p>Subtropical climates are found between 2,200 – above sea level with a regular rainfall all year long. Autumn and winter come with frequent freezes and light snow, but the snow on the south and southeast sides melt quickly due to solar radiation. The northern face is dominated by subtropical highland (Cwb). The southern face mostly experiences humid subtropical climate Cfa which experiences the highest annual temperatures in the month of April.</p><br>
<p>Due to katabatic winds the western side is dominated by steppe (BSk) creating a rain shadow below 2,600 m above sea level. Although there are some areas on the western side that experience (Cfa) most of the area is semi-dry with temperate to warm temperatures and an annual precipitation average of 550 mm. Vegetation here is grass and shrubs with few alpine species.</p><br>
<p>Between 3,200 – where temperatures usually are between 2 to 5 C, continental subarctic climate (Dfc) predominates. Over 4,300 m with an annual average low of -2 &deg;C, alpine tundra (ET) prevails to the summit; heavy snowfalls and blizzards are common throughout the year. Snow on the south and southeast melts due to solar radiation, but continually remains on the north and northwestern faces. Extreme cold dominates a surface area of approximately 31 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Pico de Orizaba evolved in three stages, the most recent initiated about 16,000 years ago during the late Pleistocene and Holocene. Citlaltépetl consists of three superimposed stratovolcanoes and dome intrusions which are: Torrecillas (650–250 ka), Espolón de Oro (210– 16 ka), and Citlaltépetl (16 ka to present). The volcano was formed by thick andesitic and dacitic lavas that followed repetitive explosive eruptions and lava effusions which created the iconic cone structure. The volcano is currently dormant but not extinct. The latest eruption of the volcano occurred in 1846 with a magnitude of VEI 2. Previous eruptions occurred in: 1687, 1613, 1589–1569, 1566, 1555–1545,1539–1533, 1351, 1260, 1187, 1175, 1157, 220 AD, 140 AD, 90 AD, 40 AD, ~780 BC, ~1500 BC, ~2110 BC, ~2300, ~2500, ~2780, ~4690, ~6220, ~6710, ~7030, and ~7530. The most violent eruption in the volcano&#39;s history is thought to have occurred around 6710 BC reaching a magnitude of VEI 5 characterized by lava dome extrusion and pyroclastic flow.</p><br>
<p>The volcano&#39;s crater is elliptical with a transverse diameter measuring 478 m and a conjugate diameter measuring 410 m. The crater has an estimated 154,830 m&sup2; with a maximum depth of 300 m. Pico de Orizaba is constantly covered by an ice cap consisting of several glaciers. An outlet glacier, known as Jamapa Glacier is located on the northeastern side of the peak; it has been a powerful force in shaping the volcano. The Jamapa Glacier is responsible for a significant portion of the geomorphologic evolution of the region surrounding the volcano.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Pico de Orizaba is located at 19°1′48″N 97°16′12″W at a distance of 100 km from the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. Orizaba is located 200 km east of Mexico City lies on the border between the states of Veracruz and Puebla. The volcano is approximately 480 km south of the Tropic of Cancer. Orizaba is found at the southeastern end of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, a volcanic chain that runs from west to east across Central Mexico; it is the only historically active volcano in the area. A companion peak lying about six km to the southwest of Pico de Orizaba is the Sierra Negra, at 4,640 m. This subsidiary peak is significantly lower than its massive neighbor, but is traversed by the highest road in North America passing over its summit.</p><br>
<p>Pico de Orizaba, like the Sierra Madre Oriental, forms a barrier between the coastal plains of the Gulf of Mexico and the Mexican Plateau. The volcano blocks the moisture from the Gulf of Mexico from saturating central Mexico and influences the climates of both areas. Both the state of Veracruz and Puebla depend on Pico de Orizaba for supplying fresh water. The largest river originating on the volcano is the Jamapa River.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Pico de Orizaba was important in pre-Hispanic cultures, such as those of the Nahuatl-speaking Aztecs and the Totonacs. The volcano is part of many native mythologies.</p><br>
<p>During the Spanish Conquest of Mexico, Hernán Cortés passed through the foothills of Pico de Orizaba; the volcano and the surrounding mountains made his journey to Tenochtitlan more difficult and delayed him for many days. During the 1600s, the Spanish Crown financed several roads to be built that would circumvent Citlaltépetl. One of the roads was routed south of the volcano through the cities of Orizaba and Fortín de las Flores, which became the main trade route between Mexico City and Veracruz on the Gulf Coast. A short road was later built by Jesuits to establish settlements at the base of Pico de Orizaba. The Spanish used the volcano as a landmark to guide themselves to the port of Veracruz. Many battles were fought near this volcano throughout Mexico&#39;s struggle for independence.</p><br>
<p>In 1839, Henri Galeotti was the first European to explore the volcano, but did not hike to the summit. During the American occupation of Mexico in 1848, two American soldiers, F. Maynard and William F. Raynolds, were the first known hikers to reach the summit of Pico de Orizaba. Later that year the French explorer, Alejandro Doignon also reached the summit. During the mid-19th century Citlaltépetl was explored by many scientists, of which the most famous was the German botanist, Hugo Fink; he was the first to record the numerous species of flora found on the volcano. In 1873, Martin Tritschler raised the Mexican flag at the summit.</p><br>
<p>On December 16, 1936, President Lázaro Cárdenas, in an effort to protect the natural beauty of Pico de Orizaba, created a national park with an area of 19,750 hectare which included the volcano with the surrounding area and the settlements of Tlachichuca, Ciudad Serdán, La Perla, Mariano Escobedo, and Calcahualco. The federal decree became federal law on January 4, 1937.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing and recreation</h2><br>
<p>Pico de Orizaba attracts a large number of international climbers every year. There are many routes for approaching and climbing the volcano, and many people attempt it, mostly during the period from October to March. The most frequented route begins from the base camp Piedra Grande Hut ("refugio") via the Jamapa Glacier, located at an elevation of 4,270 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>Another option as a starting point is high camp located at the base of the glacier about 4,900 m above sea level. For a more technical challenge for the experienced climber, there is a technical ice climb called the Serpents Head which involves 10 pitches of grade 3 ice. Additionally, the southern side offers another challenging option; although the trail is shorter, it is also steeper and more difficult. No glaciers are found on the southern side. The final ascent to the summit is via a normally straightforward and uncrevassed glacier route. The caldera can be circumnavigated with relative ease, although at one point this requires a short, exposed traverse of steep rock and ice above the Glacier Este.</p><br>
<p>Galena Summit is a high mountain pass in the western United States in central Idaho, at an elevation of 8,701 ft above sea level. The pass is located in the Boulder Mountains, in the northwest corner of Blaine County, within the Sawtooth National Recreation Area of the Sawtooth National Forest.</p><br>
<p>The summit is on State Highway 75, the Sawtooth Scenic Byway, and is 29 mi northwest of Ketchum and the Sun Valley ski resort. It is the highest summit of a highway in the Northwest. Highway 75 was formerly designated USA Route 93, which is now to the east on the former USA 93 alternate, through the Lost River Valley.</p><br>
<p>Galena Summit marks the divide between the Big Wood River and Salmon River drainage areas. A little more than 1 mi west of the summit is Galena Overlook, a scenic viewpoint at 8,400 ft. It offers views of the Sawtooth range to the northwest and the headwaters of the Salmon River in the Stanley Basin of Custer County, which SH-75 follows north to Obsidian and Stanley, then east and north towards Challis. The overlook facilities were originally opened in 1964; it was renamed in 2006 for Frank and Bethine Church, and was renovated in 2010.</p><br>
<p>The (in historic Galena) is at 7,290 ft, on the Ketchum side of the summit, and hosts cross country skiing. Collegiate alpine ski races were held on the summit in late 1947, due to a lack of snow at Sun Valley, and supplies were dropped in by airplane. The Ore-Ida Women&#39;s Challenge bicycle race (1984–2002) had a stage that crested the summit.</p><br>
<p>Galena is a mineral, lead sulfide, an important lead ore; deposits of galena often contain silver.</p><br>
<p>Aspropyrgos  is a suburb of Athens, and a municipality in the West Attica regional unit, Attica, Greece. The municipality had a population of 30,251 at the 2011 census. It has an area of 101.983 km.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name Aspropyrgos is derived from the Greek words άσπρο, meaning white, and πύργος, meaning castle or tower.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Aspropyrgos is located 15 km northwest of the city center of Athens in the Thriasian Plain. It is 5 km northeast of Eleusis, near the Saronic Gulf coast. Mount Parnitha forms its northern border, and the Aigaleo hills its southeastern border. The Eleusis Military Airbase lies to its west.</p><br>
<p>The main street is Dimokratias (Democracy) Avenue. Aspropyrgos can be accessed from the Motorway 6 (Eleusis - Athens) and the Motorway 65 (Ano Liosia - Aspropyrgos). The industrial area is in the southeastern part of Aspropyrgos. The Aspropyrgos railway station is served by Proastiakos trains from the Athens International Airport to Kiato (Peloponnese).</p><br>
<h2>Industry</h2><br>
<p>The Aspropyrgos Refinery, south of the city, has been producing oil for many years. It is the largest in Greece, with an annual capacity of 135,000 barrels. As a consequence, pollution has been a problem for years. The refinery includes depots in the southern and eastern parts, and some in the western part and at a dock to the southwest.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>Kallithea  is the 8th largest municipality in Greece  and the 4th biggest in the Athens urban area . Additionally, it is the 2nd most densely populated municipality in Greece, with 21,192 inhabitants / km². The municipality has an area of 4.749 km. Actual the community reports a number of close to 200.000 inhabitants.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The center of Kallithea (Davaki Square) lies at a distance of 3 km to the south of the Athens city center (Syntagma Square) and 3 km to the north-east of the Piraeus (photo 1). Kallithea extends from the Filopappou and Sikelia hills in the north to Phaleron Bay in the south; its two other sides consist of Syngrou Avenue to the east (border to the towns of Nea Smyrni and Palaio Faliro), and the Ilisos River to the west (border to the towns of Tavros and Moschato) (photo 2).</p><br>
<p>The site on which the city was developed covers the biggest part of the area to the south of Athens, protected in ancient times (5th century BC) by the Long Walls to the west and the Phalerum Wall to the east (photo 3). Somewhere within this area the ancient town of Xypete lay. The town and its citizens are mentioned, among other places, in Plato&#39;s Dialogs.</p><br>
<h2>1896 and 2004 Athens Olympics</h2><br>
<p>The plans for the establishment of the new city of Kallithea were officially approved in December 1884. On the longitudinal axis of the town (Thiseos Avenue), the Athens to Phaleron tramway once ran, from the beginning (1850) to (1955) and the end of its operations. Near the center of the town the Shooting Range (Skopeftirion) was built to house events of the first modern Olympic Games, the 1896 Summer Olympics, and these first modern games took place in three venues: the refurbished ancient stadium of Athens (Panathinaiko Stadium) 2 km NE of Kallithea, the Neo Phaliron Velodrome (currently Karaiskaki Stadium) 2 km SW of Kallithea, and the Kallithea Shooting Range (Skopeftirion).</p><br>
<p>Events of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games were also sited in the district of Kallithea, notably handball and Taekwondo in the new Sports Pavilion (Faliro) by the bottom of Syngrou Avenue, and beach volleyball in the Olympic Beach Volleyball Center on Kallithea Bay (Tzitzifies).</p><br>
<h2>Growth</h2><br>
<p>Between the first modern games (1896) and the recent (2004) Olympic Games in the city, Kallithea grew significantly. Initially the tramway depot and workshop were built here in 1910, followed by the Harokopios Graduate School (1925) and the Panteios Graduate School of Political Sciences (1928).</p><br>
<p>In the 1920s the town was flooded by thousands of refugees following the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922), the Asia Minor Catastrophe (1922), and the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). These refugees arrived in Kallithea mainly from the south Black Sea (Pontus), from ancient Greek cities such as Sinope (now Sinop, Turkey), Sampsus (now Samsun, Turkey), Kerasus (now Giresun, Turkey), Trapezous-Trebizond (now Trabzon, Turkey), Tripolis (now Tirebolu, Turkey), Argyroupolis (now Gümüshane, Turkey) and other remnants of the late Byzantine Empire.</p><br>
<p>A few had arrived earlier (1919) from the north and east (Russian) coasts of the Black Sea, from places such as Odessos (Odessa), Marioupolis (Mariupol&#39;, the Sea of Azov) and elsewhere, after the failed attempt of the western allies (Greece included) against the young Bolshevik state during the Russian Civil War.</p><br>
<p>Black Sea immigrants of Greek origin also settled in Kallithea in the 1930s, as a result of the change of Soviet policy toward ethnic groups. Their origins were mainly in the east coast of the Black Sea (Batumi, Sukhumi, Novorossiysk, Anapa etc.)</p><br>
<p>The first refugees settled originally near the site of the first Olympic shooting range (1896), until they were gradually transferred to new dwellings. After its evacuation the building bound with the shooting range served as a school, until the Nazi Occupation of 1941, when it was converted to a prison. The prison of Kallithea was demolished in 1966 ;among others, fighters of the Greek Resistance and victims of the Greek Civil War had been jailed there, such as Nikos Beloyannis.</p><br>
<p>In the 1990s, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, a new wave of Greek immigrants arrived in Kallithea from the east coast of the Black Sea, from the Caucasus highlands in Georgia, as well as from distant Greek settlements in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan where their Black Sea Greek ancestors were expelled during Joseph Stalin&#39;s regime in the 1930s.</p><br>
<h3>Historical population</h3><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>South Kallithea (Tzitzifies), is associated with the development of Greek folk music, particularly rebetiko and later laïkó). Popular composers and singers once performed here; Markos Vamvakaris, Vassilis Tsitsanis, Yannis Papaioannou, Marika Ninou, Sotiria Bellou, Manolis Chiotis, Mary Linda, Giorgos Zampetas, Stelios Kazantzidis, Marinella, Poly Panou, and Viki Moscholiou.</p><br>
<h3>Education</h3><br>
<p>Kallithea houses two universities (Harokopio University and Panteion University). An even notable school in Kallithea is Sivitanidios School, one of the oldest technical school in Greece.</p><br>
<h3>Sports</h3><br>
<p>Until 2004, south Kallithea (Tzitzifies) housed the only horse track in Greece (Ippodromos - Hippodrome), which later moved to Markopoulon, near Eleftherios Venizelos Airport. Kallithea houses numerous cultural associations and several sport clubs, the most well known of which are Kallithea FC (soccer), Esperos (basketball, volleyball, handball, and also soccer in an earlier period) and Ikaros Kallitheas, a multisport club founded in 1991, originally as Ikaros Nea Smyrni. Kallithea had another important club, Esperides Kallithea with many titles in women basketball. This club merged to Ikaros Kallithea in 2012.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The main roads of Kallithea are Andrea Syngrou Avenue towards eastern Athens and Poseidonos Avenue towards Piraeus and the southern suburbs. Kallithea is served by Metro line 1 stations Kallithea and Tavros, by the tram stations Kallithea and Tzitzifies, and numerous bus and trolley-bus linesconnect Kallithea to almost every destination in metropolitan Athens.</p><br>
<h2>Sites of interest</h2><br>
<p>Harokopio University</p><br>
<p>Panteion University</p><br>
<p>Municipal Gallery, housed in the Laskaridou building, one of the first dwellings in the city.</p><br>
<p>Aghia Eleousa church of the late Byzantine period.</p><br>
<p>Kallithea monument, a 4th-century BC family tomb, one of the most impressive exhibits of the Piraeus Archaeological Museum.</p><br>
<p>"Argonauts-Comnenus" (Argonaftes-Komnini) fraternity of the Pontus Greeks, aiming at the study and preservation of the history and traditions of their fatherlands.</p><br>
<p>"Constantinoplian Society" (Syllogos Konstantinoupoliton) of the Constantinople Greeks that settled in Kallithea forced to abandon Istanbul after the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) as well as in subsequent deteriorations of Greco-Turkish relations.</p><br>
<p>Monument in memory of the Pontus Greeks in the center of the city (Davaki Square and Gardens).</p><br>
<p>Faliro Coastal Zone Olympic Complex on Kallithea beach from the Sports Pavilion (Faliro) to the Olympic Beach Volleyball Center and the delta of the River Ilisos.</p><br>
<p>Grigoris Lambrakis Stadium, home to Kallithea FC since 1972.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Foivos Delivorias, singer and songwriter</p><br>
<p>Stamatis Kraounakis, composer</p><br>
<p>Demis Anastasiadis, singer and songwriter</p><br>
<p>Agia Eleousa Kallitheas.JPGThe church Agia Eleousa</p><br>
<p>Attica 06-13 Kallithea 04 Church Metamorphosi Sotiros.jpgThe church Metamorphosi Sotiros</p><br>
<p>Attica 06-13 Kallithea 01 ISAP station.jpgISAP station Kallithea</p><br>
<p>Key Biscayne  is an island located in Miami-Dade County, Florida, United States, between the Atlantic Ocean and Biscayne Bay. It is the southernmost of the barrier islands along the Atlantic coast of Florida, and lies south of Miami Beach and southeast of Miami. The key is connected to Miami via the Rickenbacker Causeway, originally built in 1947.</p><br>
<p>The northern portion of Key Biscayne is home to Crandon Park, a county park. The middle section of the island consists of the incorporated Village of Key Biscayne. The southern part of the island is now protected as Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park, adjacent to Biscayne National Park, one of the two national parks in Miami-Dade County.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Key Biscayne, although named a "key", is not geologically part of the Florida Keys, but is a barrier island composed of sand eroded from the Appalachian Mountains, carried to the coast by rivers and then moved along the coast from the north by coastal currents. There is no hard bedrock near the surface of the island, only layers of weak "shelly sandstone" to depths of 100 ft or more. The coastal transport of sand southward ends at Key Biscayne. In the 1850s Louis Agassiz noted that "outh of Cape Florida no more silicacious sand is to be seen." (The beaches in the Florida Keys, by contrast, consist primarily of finely pulverized shells.) Geologists believe that the island emerged around 2000 BCE, soon after the sea level stopped rising, as the sand built up to form new barrier islands on the southern Florida coast.</p><br>
<p>Key Biscayne is elongated in the north-south direction, tapering to a point at each end. It is approximately 5 mi long and 1 to 2 mi wide. The northern end of the island is separated from another barrier island, Virginia Key, by Bear Cut. The southern end of the island is Cape Florida. The Cape Florida Channel separates the island from the Safety Valve, an expanse of shallow flats cut by tidal channels that extends southward about 9 mi to the Ragged Keys, at the northern end of the Florida Keys. Only Soldier Key, approximately 200 by wide, lies between Key Biscayne and the Ragged Keys. The Cape Florida Channel (ten to eleven feet deep in 1849) and Bear Cut (four feet deep in 1849) are the deepest natural channels into Biscayne Bay. They provided the only access for ocean-going vessels to Biscayne Bay until artificial channels were dredged starting early in the 20th century. In 1849 the island had a fine sandy beach on the east side, and mangroves and lagoons on the west side. The average elevation of the island is less than five feet (1.5 m) above sea level.</p><br>
<p>People from Key Biscayne are known as "Key Rats."</p><br>
<p>Key Biscayne is located at 25&deg;41&prime;25&Prime;N latitude, 80&deg;9&prime;54&Prime;W longitude (25.690329, -80.165118).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early history</h3><br>
<p>The first known indigenous inhabitants of Key Biscayne were Tequestas. Shells, bones and artifacts found on the island indicate extensive use of it by the Tequesta. A large community appeared to inhabit the island between 1,500 and 2,000 years ago. In 1992 Hurricane Andrew scoured much of the vegetation from the southern end of Key Biscayne. An archaeological survey of the exposed ground found evidence of extensive habitation.</p><br>
<p>Juan Ponce de León charted Key Biscayne on his first mission to the New World in 1513. He christened the island Santa Marta and claimed it for the Spanish Crown. He reported that he found a fresh water spring on the island. Ponce de León called the bay behind the island (Biscayne Bay) Chequescha, a variant form of Tequesta.</p><br>
<p>The next European known to have visited the Key Biscayne area was Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. In 1565 his ship took refuge in Biscayne Bay from a storm. Relations were established with the Tequesta, and in 1567 a mission was established on the mainland across the bay from Key Biscayne. The mission was abandoned three years later in 1570. No other mission was established on the mainland until 1743, but it was withdrawn a few months later.</p><br>
<p>Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda related that a sailor from the Bay of Biscay, called the Viscayno or Biscayno, had lived on the lower east coast of Florida for a while after being shipwrecked. A 17th-century map shows Cayo de Biscainhos, the probable origin of Key Biscayne.</p><br>
<p>The first known European settlers on Key Biscayne were Pedro Fornells, his family and household. Fornells and his wife Mariana were Menorcan survivors of the New Smyrna colony in northern Florida. Pedro and Mariana had joined other Menorcans in seeking refuge at St. Augustine after leaving New Smyrna. They stayed in the city after the Spanish regained Florida in 1783. Fornells received a Royal Grant for 175 acres on the southern end of Key Biscayne in 1805. The grant required Fornells to live on the island and establish cultivation within six months. He moved his household to the island, but after six months, the family returned to St. Augustine, leaving a caretaker Vincent on the island.</p><br>
<h3>Territorial years</h3><br>
<p>Following the First Seminole War and a treaty with Spain, Florida became a USA territory in 1821. Under pressure from US settlers, Seminole and Black Seminoles began to migrate into central and southern Florida. In the early nineteenth century, African-American slaves and Black Seminoles escaped to the Bahamas from Cape Florida, including hundreds in the 1820s, to evade American slavers.</p><br>
<p>In 1824 Mary Ann Channer Davis, who had moved to St. Augustine with her husband in 1821, bought the Fornells claim to Key Biscayne from one of the Fornells&#39; heirs for US$100. Mary and her husband William Davis, a deputy USA Marshal, probably were aware of plans to build a lighthouse on the Florida coast somewhere between St. Augustine and Key West, and knew that Key Biscayne was a likely location for it. Mary and William sold three acres (about one-and-a-quarter hectares) of their newly acquired land at the southern tip of the island (Cape Florida) to the USA government for US$225. The federal government built the Cape Florida lighthouse on that land in 1825.</p><br>
<p>During the early 1820s an estimated 300 Black Seminoles found passage from Key Biscayne to Andros Island in the Bahamas on seagoing canoes and Bahamian boats. In 1820 one traveler reported seeing 60 "Indians", 60 "runaway slaves", and 27 boats of Bahamian wreckers preparing to leave Cape Florida. Although Key Biscayne was less suitable as a departure point after the lighthouse was built, the Bahamas remained a haven for escaping slaves. In a notorious case in 1844, Jonathan Walker was caught "within sight of Cape Florida" with seven runaway slaves on his boat. His punishment included having his hand branded with the initials "SS" (for "slave stealer"). John Greenleaf Whittier&#39;s poem The Branded Hand was inspired by this incident.</p><br>
<p>The first USA citizens to take up permanent residence on Key Biscayne were Captain John Dubose, his wife Margaret and their five children in 1825, when Dubose became the first keeper for the new Cape Florida Light, a post he held until the lighthouse was burned in 1836. The family was also accompanied by two former slaves of Margarets brother. The Dubose household grew during that time and was reported in 1833 to consist of "eleven whites and several negroes". During his tenure as lighthouse keeper, Dubose received hundreds of plants and seeds from Dr. Henry Perrine, United States Consul in Campeche, Mexico, which he planted on the island. In 1835 a major hurricane struck the island, damaging the lighthouse and the keepers house, and putting the island under three feet of water, which killed almost all the plants that Dr. Perrine had sent from Mexico.</p><br>
<h3>War with the Seminoles</h3><br>
<p>In 1836, during the Second Seminole War, Seminoles attacked and burned the Cape Florida lighthouse, severely wounding the assistant lighthouse keeper in charge; his black assistant died of wounds. The lighthouse was not repaired and put back into commission until 1847.</p><br>
<p>A military post was established on Key Biscayne in March 1838. Its first commander was Lt. Col. James Bankhead. The fort was initially known as Fort Dallas or Fort Bankhead, but it was eventually renamed Fort Russell for Captain Samuel L. Russell. He was killed when the Seminoles ambushed two boats on the Miami River in February 1839. In the summer of 1839, a total of 143 soldiers and sailors were stationed at Fort Russell. Some of the Seminoles captured during the war were held at Fort Russell until they could be placed on ships to be removed to Indian Territory.</p><br>
<p>A hospital was established at Fort Russell for USA Army, Navy and Marine Corps personnel. In August 1840, the Army surgeon at the hospital treated 103 patients, including 23 for fever and 26 for dysentery. Dysentery was the leading cause of death at the fort, followed by malaria, tuberculosis, gunshot wounds and alcoholism.</p><br>
<p>Colonel Bankhead was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel William S. Harney in 1839. Colonel Harney had two earlier encounters with Seminoles, the first a battle in which Chief Arpeika eluded capture, and a second in which Harney escaped in only his shirt and drawers from an early morning attack (the Harney Massacre) on his camp led by Chief Chakaika. In light of these experiences, Harney instituted an intensive training program in swamp and jungle warfare for his men. After Chakaika led the raid on Indian Key in August 1840, Harney set out into the Everglades after Chakaika, and killed him in his own camp. The war quieted down after that, with active pursuit of the Seminoles ending in 1842, although some of the Seminoles remained hidden in the Everglades.</p><br>
<p>While the war against the Seminoles continued, Mary and William Davis made plans to develop a town on Key Biscayne. They had a town plan printed in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The island was touted as an ideal destination "for the recovery of the health". When Indian Key had been named the seat for the newly created Dade County in 1836, the county provided that the county court would meet annually on Key Biscayne. In late 1839 the United States Postmaster General approved a post office for Key Biscayne. The first two lots of the new town were sold to Lt. Col. Harney for a total of US$1,000. There is no evidence that the post office ever opened; in 1842 the Postmaster General noted that the appointed postmaster had not completed any of the requirements for opening the post office. No further sales of town lots were made after Harney&#39;s purchase.</p><br>
<p>A complication arose when Venancio Sanchez of St. Augustine purchased for US$400 a half share in the old Fornells grant from another surviving heir, who lived in Havana. A feud quickly developed between Sanchez and the Davises, with Sanchez demanding a division of the property, and the Davises refusing to acknowledge that Sanchez had any claim to the island. The Davises had hoped that a restored lighthouse would be the centerpiece of their town, but all attempts to repair the lighthouse failed while the war was on. Shortly after the end of the war, the Davises gave up on Key Biscayne and moved to Texas. Their older son Edmund J. Davis eventually was elected as governor there.</p><br>
<h3>Surveys and lighthouses</h3><br>
<p>The numerous ship wrecks that occurred along the southeast coast of Florida from Key Biscayne to the Dry Tortugas was a cause for concern. Between the late 1840s and the late 1850s, more than 500 ships were wrecked on the Florida Reef. The Assistant United States Coast Surveyor reported that in the period from 1845 through 1849, almost one million (United States) dollars worth of vessels and cargoes were lost on the reef.</p><br>
<p>In 1849 the United States Board of Engineers conducted a preliminary survey of the coast of Florida. In a report written by Lieutenant Colonel Robert E. Lee, the Board recommended that Key Biscayne be made a military reservation, and the United States Secretary of War so ordered in March 1849. Later that year, the United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers set up a camp with an astronomical/magnetic station to serve as a datum base for a survey of the Florida Keys and the Great Florida Reef.</p><br>
<p>The triangulation survey was conducted by the USA Coast Survey with men detailed from the USA Army and USA Navy. Approximately forty men were based at Cape Florida working on the survey when Alexander Dallas Bache, Superintendent of the USA Coast Survey, went to Key Biscayne in 1855 to take charge of it. The survey eventually covered Key Biscayne, Biscayne Bay, the Florida Keys from south of Key Biscayne to the Marquesas Keys, and Florida Bay from the Keys to Cape Sable. The survey base marker at Cape Florida ended up under water, as the south end of the island eroded. It could be seen at low tide as late as 1913.</p><br>
<p>In 1988 the Cape Florida base marker was recovered from under water and installed near the Cape Florida lighthouse. The north base marker for Key Biscayne was discovered in 1970 as workers were clearing land. It was at first mistaken as a gravestone for someone named A. D. Bache.</p><br>
<p>To learn more about the Great Florida Reef, Alexander Bache invited Louis Agassiz to study it. The USA Coast Survey sent Agassiz to Key Biscayne in 1851. He wrote a detailed report for Bache on the reefs stretching from Key Biscayne to the Marquesas Keys.</p><br>
<p>In 1846, US Congress appropriated $23,000 to rebuild the Cape Florida lighthouse and work was completed in 1847. In 1861, Confederate militants sabotaged the lighthouse so that it could not guide Union sailors during the blockade of Confederate Florida. The lighthouse was repaired and re-lit again in 1866. In 1878 the Cape Florida Light was replaced by the Fowey Rocks Light, seven miles (11 km) southeast of Cape Florida.</p><br>
<p>In 1898, in response to the growing tension with Spain over Cuba, which led to the Spanish–American War, the Cape Florida lighthouse was briefly made USA Signal Station Number Four. It was one of 36 along the USA East Coast and Gulf Coast from Maine to Texas. The Signal Stations were established to provide an early warning of any approach of the Spanish fleet.</p><br>
<h3>Biscayne Bay Yacht Club</h3><br>
<p>From 1888 to 1893, the Cape Florida lighthouse was leased by the United States Secretary of the Treasury for a total of US$1.00 (20 cents per annum) to the Biscayne Bay Yacht Club for use as its headquarters. It was listed as the southernmost yacht club in the United States, and the tallest in the world. After the lease expired, the yacht club moved to Coconut Grove, where it continues.</p><br>
<h3>Development</h3><br>
<p>Key Biscayne was first developed for coconut cultivation. The earliest mention of coconuts on Key Biscayne is a Spanish account from 1568, although the reference may be to cocoplums rather than coconuts. Mature coconut trees were on Cape Florida by the 1830s, likely grown from coconuts sent from Mexico by Henry Perrine to the first lighthouse keeper, John Dubose.</p><br>
<p>In the 1880s Ezra Asher Osborn and Elnathan T. Field of New Jersey started an enterprise to develop the Florida coast from Key Biscayne to Jupiter by clearing native vegetation, leveling Indian midden mounds and beach dunes, and planting coconuts. Osborn and Field imported 300,000 unhusked coconuts from the Caribbean, of which 76,000 were planted on Key Biscayne. Most of the shoots from the coconuts on Key Biscayne were eaten by rats and marsh rabbits (Sylvilagus palustris). As a result of their efforts, in 1885 Osborn and Field were allowed to purchase Key Biscayne and other oceanfront land from the Florida Internal Improvement Trust Fund for 70 cents an acre.</p><br>
<p>Mary Ann Davis, who had bought the Fornells grant on Key Biscayne in 1821, died in Galveston, Texas in 1885. Her son Waters Smith Davis began taking steps to assert the family title to the island. In 1887 he purchased the rights of the other Davis heirs and received a new deed in his name. He could not get a clear title, however. Venancio Sanchez still claimed a half share of the Fornells Grant, two of the town lots had been sold to William Harney around 1840, and Osborne and Field had their deed from the Florida Internal Improvement Fund. Davis received quitclaims from Osborn and Field, and on the Harney lots, but was unable to settle with Sanchez. He finally received a patent from the United States government for his land in 1898. In 1903 Davis bought the abandoned Cape Florida lighthouse from the United States Treasury for US$400.</p><br>
<p>Davis started a pineapple plantation on Key Biscayne; six acres (two-and-a-half hectares) had been cleared and planted in pineapples in 1893–94. Davis also directed his caretaker to plant one-half to one acre (two-tenths to four-tenths of a hectare) of bananas. By 1898, a great variety of tropical fruit trees had been planted on the island. Davis also had a large dwelling built for his use. It was a two-story cottage with five bedrooms and verandas on three sides, raised ten feet above the ground on pilings to protect against storm surges.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1890s Davis hired Ralph Munroe to oversee his Key Biscayne property. Munroe had begun visiting Biscayne Bay in 1877. He soon built a home, the Barnacle, on land on the mainland in Coconut Grove that he bought from John Frow, keeper of the Cape Florida Light and Fowey Rocks Light. Munroe engaged in wrecking in the waters around Key Biscayne, built sailboats, worked as a pilot for the Cape Florida Channel and opened a pineapple cannery, to which Davis sent his pineapples. Before mail service to the Miami area improved, Munroe would camp out on Key Biscayne every Tuesday evening so that he could sail out to the edge of the Gulf Stream early Wednesday morning to retrieve a package of newspapers and magazines dropped for him in waterproof pouches by a passing steamship. Munroe was also one of the founding members of the Biscayne Bay Yacht Club.</p><br>
<p>In 1896 Henry Morrison Flagler brought the Florida East Coast Railway to Miami. Mary Ann and William Davis had dreamed of building a city on Key Biscayne. Now their son Waters was a retired millionaire, and interested only in preserving Key Biscayne as a quiet retreat for his family. For a while Flagler&#39;s arrival did disturb their quiet, as Flagler brought in dredges to deepen the Cape Florida Channel and the approaches to the mouth of the Miami River, muddying the formerly clear waters of Biscayne Bay. Soon, however, a shorter route from the ocean to Miami was dredged through the southern end of what is now Miami Beach, at Government Cut, and the Cape Florida Channel was allowed to return to a natural state.</p><br>
<h3>Coconut plantation and would-be resort</h3><br>
<p>In 1902 William John Matheson, who had made his fortune in the aniline dye business, visited Biscayne Bay on his yacht. He soon built a winter home in Coconut Grove overlooking the bay. In 1908 Matheson began buying up the property on Key Biscayne north of the Davis holdings, all the way to Bear Cut, over 1,700 (about 690 hectares) acres. Matheson created a plantation community, employing 42 workers by 1915, and 60 later. It included housing for the workers and their families, packing houses, docks, a school, a big barn, windmills, and 15 mi of (unpaved) roads. The plantation had 36,000 coconut trees, and a variety of other tropical fruits. In 1921 Matheson introduced the Malay Dwarf coconut to the United States. This is now the most common variety of coconut found in Florida, after lethal yellowing killed off most of the Jamaican Tall coconut trees and many other varieties. The Matheson coconut plantation was at least twice as large as any other in the United States. By 1933, the world price for coconut products had dropped to about two-fifths of its 1925 level, and the plantation stopped shipping.</p><br>
<p>Waters Davis decided to sell his Key Biscayne property in 1913 (he died the following year). He appointed Ralph Munroe to act as his broker. Although Matheson bid on the property, Munroe arranged a sale, for US$20,000, to James Deering, the International Harvester heir and owner of Vizcaya in Miami. In 1914 Deering decided to develop his new land on the island as a tropical resort. He felt that Cape Florida&#39;s "future lies in making sales for homes." To prepare, the land was cleared, with marshes and mangroves were filled in. Jetties were built on the ocean side, in the belief that they would protect the beaches from erosion. They have been found to aggravate erosion.</p><br>
<p>Waters Davis stipulated in his sale to Deering that the Cape Florida lighthouse be restored. Deering wrote to the USA government seeking specifications and guidelines for the lighthouse. Government officials were taken aback by the request, wondering how a federal lighthouse could have passed into private hands. An Act of Congress and two Executive Orders, in 1847 and 1897, had reserved the island for the federal lighthouse and for military purposes. Patient legal work eventually convinced the USA Congress and President Woodrow Wilson to agree to recognize Mathesons and Deerings ownership of Key Biscayne.</p><br>
<p>In 1920 the heirs of Venancio Sanchez filed a lawsuit against James Deering, claiming an undivided half interest in his Cape Florida property. This brought development of the resort on Cape Florida to a halt. After many legal battles, the suit was finally decided in Deering&#39;s favor by the United States Supreme Court in 1926. The decision came too late for Deering; he had died the previous year.</p><br>
<h3>1920s to 1950s</h3><br>
<p>In February 1926 William Matheson entered into an agreement with D. P. Davis (a land developer, not related to Waters Davis) to develop and re-sell the northern half of Key Biscayne, including all of what is now Crandon Park and about half the present Village of Key Biscayne. Davis had experience with turning submerged or partially submerged land into prime real estate, having created the Davis Islands in Tampa and Davis Shores near St. Augustine. Later in 1926, the City of Coral Gables incorporated with Key Biscayne, which was included in its boundaries. There were dreams of a bridge to the island, making Key Biscayne the seaside resort for Coral Gables, as Miami Beach had become for Miami.</p><br>
<p>Obstacles to the project arose. In March 1926 the USA government auctioned off some lots on Key Biscayne that had been retained when the rest of the island was transferred to the State of Florida. The Mathesons wanted to have clear title to all of their land, and determined to outbid other interested parties for it. They ended up paying US$58,055 for a total of 6.84 acres of land, a record price per acre for the auction of USA government land up to that date. On September 18, 1926, the Great Miami Hurricane crossed over Key Biscayne on its way to Miami. Although no lives were lost on the island, most of the buildings were destroyed or badly damaged. Many of the plantings were lost, including half of the coconut trees. The Mathesons rushed to restore their plantation, replanting and buying new equipment to replace what was lost. They soon had 30,000 coconut trees replanted on 900 acres. D. P. Davis could not meet his contract; he declared bankruptcy and disappeared en route to Europe by ship.</p><br>
<p>The Florida Land Boom was over. There was no bridge built and no development on Key Biscayne for the next two decades. William Matheson died in 1930, leaving the island to his children. In 1939, the USA Navy approved a proposal to develop Virginia Key as an air base and sea port. There was talk of putting an air base on the north end of Key Biscayne.</p><br>
<p>In 1940 William Matheson&#39;s heirs donated 808.8 acres of land (including 2 mi of beach on the Atlantic Ocean) on the northern end of Key Biscayne to Dade County to be used as a public park (later named Crandon Park). The county commissioner who negotiated the gift, Charles H. Crandon, had offered to have the county build a causeway to Key Biscayne in exchange for the land donation. As planning for the air and sea complex on Virginia Key was proceeding, construction on a causeway to Virginia Key started in 1941.</p><br>
<p>The Attack on Pearl Harbor and the entry of the United States into World War II stopped all work on the causeway and the development of Virginia Key. After the war, Crandon pushed on with the development project. He got financier Ed Ball to buy six million (USA) dollars worth of bonds financing construction of the causeway. The causeway was named for Eddie Rickenbacker, World War I flying ace, and founder and president of the Miami-based Eastern Air Lines. Starting in 1951, the Mackle Construction Company offered new homes on the island for US$9,540, with just US$500 down. A USA Post Office contract branch was opened, the Community Church started holding services, and the Key Biscayne Elementary School opened in 1952.</p><br>
<h3>Cape Florida becomes a state park</h3><br>
<p>In 1948 José Manuel Áleman, who had fled Cuba in the wake of scandals surrounding his service as education minister under Ramón Grau San Martín, bought the Cape Florida property from the Deering estate. His offer to donate the lighthouse and ten acres (four hectares) of land around it to the National Park Service was not accepted.</p><br>
<p>In 1950 the Dade County Planning Board announced a plan to build a highway connecting Key Biscayne with the Overseas Highway on Key Largo. The project envisioned bridges connecting artificial islands, to be built on the Safety Valve and existing small keys to Elliott Key and on to Key Largo. Áleman was expected to donate the right-of-way for a road running down the middle of the island to the first bridge at Cape Florida. With the prospect of a major highway passing through his property, Áleman rushed to prepare it for development: he had it completely cleared, leveled and filled in. A seawall was constructed along the western (Biscayne Bay) side of the Cape Florida property.</p><br>
<p>Áleman died in 1951, and the County soon backed down from its road and bridge plan. His widow, Elena Santeiro Garcia, added to her Cape Florida property by buying an ocean-to-bay strip that had been part of the Matheson property. It included a canal dug by William Matheson in the 1920s, extending from the bay across most of the island. The land north of the canal was developed as part of the present-day Village of Key Biscayne. Garcia sold the Cape Florida property in 1957 for US$9.5 million, but the buyer defaulted and died the next year. Garcia sold the property again, for US$13 million. Development started on a model community&#39; of luxury homes and resort properties. By 1962 the new developers were in financial trouble, and the property reverted again to Garcia in 1963.</p><br>
<p>Dade County began considering purchase of 50 acre around the Cape Florida lighthouse for a park in 1964. Bill Baggs, editor of The Miami News, campaigned for all the Cape Florida property to be preserved in a park. USA Interior Secretary Stewart Udall inspected the property and recommended that it be preserved, although not with Federal funds. In 1966 Baggs brokered a deal between Elena Santeiro Garcia and the state of Florida, in which Florida bought the property for US$8.5 million, of which US$2.3 million came from the USA government. This land was named the Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park, and opened January 1, 1967. In 2004 a sign was installed to commemorate the site as part of the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom Trail, for the Black Seminoles who escaped to the Bahamas.</p><br>
<h4>Demographic</h4><br>
<p>Key Biscayne is a small, intimate community. The majority of families that live there have known each other for generations. The kids that grew up on the island are known as Key Rats.</p><br>
<p>Cass Lake is a glacially-formed lake in north central Minnesota in the United States. It is approximately 10 mi long and 7 mi wide, located in Cass and Beltrami counties, within the Chippewa National Forest and the Leech Lake Indian Reservation, adjacent to its namesake city of Cass Lake. In the Ojibwe language, it is called Gaa-miskwaawaakokaag , and was known to early explorers and traders in French as Lac du Cedre Rouge, and English as Red Cedar Lake. It is the 11th largest lake in Minnesota, and the 8th largest lake lying entirely within the borders of the state.</p><br>
<p>The lake contains five islands, including Star Island, Cedar Island, the two Potato Islands, and a small unnamed island. The Mississippi River flows through the lake from west to east. A second major stream, the Turtle River, enters the lake from the north. The lake has a large littoral area, particularly around Cedar Island. Star Island is notable in that it contains the 199 acre-sized Lake Windigo, thus forming "a lake within an island within a lake"..</p><br>
<p>In July 1820, an expedition led by General Lewis Cass visited the lake. They were prevented from traveling further upstream by low water, and so designated the lake as the headwaters of the Mississippi because below this point, the river is navigable throughout the ice-free season. In June 1832, Henry Schoolcraft, who had been a member of the 1820 expedition, designated the source of the river as being further upstream at Lake Itasca, the source of the perennial stream. Subsequent to the Cass Expedition of 1820, the lake was renamed Cass Lake in order to distinguish it from Red Cedar Lake (known today as Cedar Lake) in Aitkin County.</p><br>
<p>The lake is popular destination for recreational fishing, boating, and swimming. The lake is known for its walleye, northern pike, muskellunge, and yellow perch fisheries. Tullibee are important forage fish. There are numerous campgrounds and resorts located on its shores. The southern and eastern shores of the lake, as well as all the islands, are protected within the Ten Section Area of the Chippewa National Forest. Norway Beach recreation area is located at the southeast corner of the lake, and contains Norway Beach Lodge, a notable example of Civilian Conservation Corps-built Finnish-style log architecture. The city of Cass Lake sits near the southwestern side of the lake. Formerly, the lake played an important role in the lumber industry. Log booms were towed across the lake by steamboat from surrounding lakes and streams to either be sawed into lumber at local mills, or transported elsewhere by railroad.</p><br>
<p>Historically, Cass Lake was considered to be much larger. Pike Bay is a 4,760 acre lake lying to the south of Cass Lake; the two lakes are connected by a narrow 0.5 mi long channel. Formerly, the two lakes were connected by a 0.6 mi wide shallow narrows. Beginning in 1898, construction of a railroad, and later highway and pipeline, across the narrows led to decreased currents through and increased sedimentation in the narrows. The two bodies of water are now generally considered separate lakes, although Pike Bay retains its old name.</p><br>
<p>The lake level is maintained and stabilized by Knutson Dam, built in 1924 to replace earlier brush and log dams built by lumber companies. Knutson Dam is one of the few dams managed by the USA Forest Service.</p><br>
<p>On the small isthmus between Cass Lake and neighboring Buck Lake lies Camp Chippewa, a boys camp founded in 1935. Another camp, UniStar, lies on a portion of Star Island.</p><br>
<p>Bangka  is an island lying east of Sumatra, administratively part of Sumatra, Indonesia, with a population of about 1 million. It is the 9 largest island in Indonesia and the main part of Bangka-Belitung Province, being one of its namesakes alongside the smaller Belitung across the Gaspar Strait. The provincial capital, Pangkal Pinang, lies on the island. The island is administratively divided into 4 regencies and a chartered city.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Bangka is an island province together with Belitung Island. Bangka lies just east of Sumatra, separated by the Bangka Strait; to the north lies the South China Sea, to the east, across the Gaspar Strait, is the island of Belitung, and to the south is the Java Sea. The size is about 12,000 km². Most of the geographical faces of the island consists of lower plains, swamps, small hills, beautiful beaches, white pepper fields and tin mines.</p><br>
<p>The largest town is Pangkal Pinang which also serves as the capital of Bangka-Belitung Province. Sungai Liat is the second largest city in Bangka island. Mentok (formerly called Muntok) is the principal port in the west. The other important towns are Toboali in the southern region, Koba an important tin mining town, also located on the southern part of the island, and Belinyu, a town famous for its seafood products. There are 4 sea ports in Bangka; Mentok on the far west, Belinyu on the far north, Sadai on the far south, and Pangkal Balam which is in Pangkal Pinang. It was intended that a nuclear power station be built there.</p><br>
<p>The population was 626,955 in 1990, and 960,692 in the 2010 census; the area is 4,487.87 sq mi (11,623½ km²).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>During the glacial periods, Bangka was connected to mainland Asia similarly with the larger islands of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo as part of the Sunda Shelf, and got separated once the sea level rose.</p><br>
<p>The Kota Kapur inscription, dated from 686 CE, was found in Bangka in 1920, showed Srivijayan influence on the island around the 7 century. Later, the island was conquered by an expedition from Majapahit, led by Gajah Mada, which appointed local rulers and established social structures. As the empire declined, Bangka fell into neglect.</p><br>
<p>Bangka was recorded in the 1436 Xingcha Shenglan, compiled by the Chinese soldier Fei Xin during the treasure voyages of Admiral Zheng He. Contemporary records show that the area - close to the busy Strait of Malacca and waters of the Musi River - had significant presence of Chinese traders.</p><br>
<p>Later on, the island was taken over by the Johor and Minangkabau Sultanates which introduced Islam to the island. It continued to pass to the Banten Sultanate before it was then inherited by the nearby Palembang Sultanate sometime in the late 17 century. Soon after, around 1710, tin was discovered on the island which attracted migrants from across the archipelago and beyond. Descendants of the Chinese immigrants, mainly from Guangdong, still form a large portion of modern Bangka&#39;s inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>As tin mining developed further, the Palembang Sultanate sent for experts in Malay Peninsula and China. The Dutch East India Company managed to secure a monopolistic tin purchase agreement in 1722, but hostilities began to develop between the Sultan and the Dutch. During the British Invasion of Java in 1811, then-Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin attacked and massacred the staff of the Dutch post on the island. He was later deposed and executed by the British. His successor ceded Bangka to Britain in 1812, but in 1814 Britain exchanged it with the Dutch for Cochin in India following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814.</p><br>
<p>Around the late years of the 18 century, Bangka was an important production center of tin in Asia, with annual outputs hovering around 1,250 tons. In 1930 Bangka had a population of 205,363.Japan occupied the island from February 1942 to August 1945 during World War II. The Japanese military perpetrated the Bangka Island massacre against Australian nurses and British and Australian servicemen and civilians.</p><br>
<p>During the Indonesian National Revolution, republican leaders Sukarno and Hatta were exiled in Bangka in the aftermath of Operation Kraai. Bangka became part of independent Indonesia in 1949. The island, together with neighboring Belitung, was formerly part of South Sumatra (Sumatera Selatan) province, but in 2000 the two islands became the new province of Bangka-Belitung. In the recent years, tin mining has declined notedly, although it is still a major part of the island&#39;s economy.</p><br>
<p>Bangka is also home to a number of communist Indonesians who have been under house arrest since the 1960s anti-Communist purge and are not permitted to leave the island.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Since c. 1710, Bangka has been one of the world&#39;s principal tin-producing centers. Tin production is an Indonesian government monopoly, and there is a tin smelter at Muntok. White pepper is also produced on the island.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>The majority of the inhabitants are Malays and Chinese, mostly Hakkas. The population is split between those work on the tin mines, palm oil plantations, rubber plantations, fisherman and those who work on pepper farms.</p><br>
<p>Coron is the third-largest island in the Calamian Islands in northern Palawan in the Philippines. The island is part of the larger municipality of the same name. It is about 170 nmi southwest of Manila and is known for several Japanese shipwrecks of World War II vintage. Because of its unique ecological features, it is entirely protected by several legal proclamations.</p><br>
<p>The island and surrounding fishing grounds are part of the ancestral domain of the indigenous Tagbanwa people, officially designated such on June 5, 1998. Known as Calis among the Tagbanwas and Coronians, its tribal chieftain is Rodolfo Aguilar I.</p><br>
<p>The island comprises two barangays of the municipality of Coron: Banuang Daan and Cabugao.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Partially between Busuanga and Culion islands, Coron Island faces the Sulu Sea and forms the eastern side of Coron Bay. It is about 20 km long from north to south, and 9 km at its widest point.</p><br>
<p>It is a wedge-shaped mountainous island, dominated by steep cliffs and Karst rock formations made of Permian limestone of Jurassic origin that comprises about 70% of its area. Another 25% is rolling hills, while only 5% is relatively flat. There are 11 lakes nestled in the rugged terrain, of which 3 have underground connections to the sea. There are a few mangroves in coastal areas.</p><br>
<h2>Diving</h2><br>
<p>The area around the wrecks has rock formations which provide for snorkeling opportunities, with underwater visibility extending up to 80 ft. The water is often calm. Coron is one of the most visited destinations for wreck diving in the Philippines. Wreck dive sites are found in depths as shallow as 10 – and as deep as 120 –. Most are in the range of about 60 –.</p><br>
<p>Dive sites around Coron include many different reef dive sites and "Günter´s Cave", also known as Cathedral Cave because during a certain time of the day, the sun throws a beam of light through a hole in the cave ceiling, illuminating the inside. It is possible to surface in the cave, as the hole in the cave-ceiling allows fresh air to enter.</p><br>
<p>The cave is named after Günther Bernert, who was part of the first dive group to explore the cave, after hearing from local fishermen about its existence.</p><br>
<p>Wreck diving sites in Coron Bay include the Irako wreck, Okikawa Maru wreck, Akitsushima wreck, Kogyo Maru wreck, Olympia Maru wreck, Kyokuzan Maru wreck, East Tangat gunboat wreck (the real name of the ship, Terukaze Maru, was recently discovered by a group of Dutch divers, who spent a couple of days digging into bottom sand around the stern), Nanshin Maru wreck, Lusong Gunboat Wreck, and Skeleton Wreck.</p><br>
<p>The aquatic views from the sunken Japanese ships off Coron Island are listed in Forbes Traveler Magazine’s top-10 best scuba diving sites in the world.</p><br>
<p>Herschel Island  is an island in the Beaufort Sea , which lies 5 km off the coast of Yukon in Canada, of which it is administratively a part. It is Yukon&#39;s only offshore island.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<p>The earliest evidence of human occupation unearthed so far by archaeological investigations is that of the Thule culture, dating to approximately 1000 years ago. These people are the ancestors of the present-day Inuvialuit. The Inuvialuktun word for Herschel Island is "Qikiqtaruk", which simply means "island".</p><br>
<p>The first European to sight the island was explorer Sir John Franklin, who named it on 15 July 1826. It is not clear after whom the island was named. Franklin’s journal records states that he wished to honour the name Herschel, of which three persons are notable for their scientific accomplishments: Sir William Herschel, his sister Caroline Herschel, and his son Sir John Herschel. At the time of Franklin&#39;s explorations there were three Inuvialuit settlements on Herschel Island. Estimates of the number of people living on the island (and along the Yukon North Slope) at that time ranged from 200 to 2000. The island was used as a base for hunting, fishing and whaling.</p><br>
<h2>The whaling period</h2><br>
<p>In the late 19th century, whalers discovered that the Beaufort Sea was one of the last refuges of the depleted bowhead whale, which was prized for its baleen, blubber, and oil. Commercial bowhead hunting in the area began in 1889. In order for the short Arctic whaling season to be profitable, it was necessary to overwinter in the area. Herschel Island was found to have a good harbour for large whaling ships. In 1890 a Euro-American settlement was established at Pauline Cove. At the height of the Beaufort Sea whaling period (1893–94) the number of residents on the island was estimated at 1,500, making it the largest Yukon community at that time. Though several frame buildings had been constructed, most residents continued to live on whaling ships.</p><br>
<p>In 1893, the Pacific Steam Whaling Company (PSW Co.) constructed a building called the Community House at Pauline Cove. With a recreation room, an office for the manager and storekeeper, and storage facilities, the Community House became the most prominent building on the island. In 1896 the company offered the house to the Anglican church, who used the building until 1906.</p><br>
<p>In 1903, Francis Joseph Fitzgerald was the first North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) officer assigned to the area, who later died in the famous "Lost Patrol".</p><br>
<p>In 1911, the Royal North-West Mounted Police purchased all Herschel Island assets of the PSW Co. for $1,500. The Community House still stands, and is believed to be the oldest frame building in Yukon. It remains in excellent condition, and is now used as a park office and visitor centre.</p><br>
<h2>The Arctic's first trial</h2><br>
<p>The first court case held in the Canadian Arctic took place at Pauline Cove in 1924 in a building known as the Bonehouse, which was built in the mid-1890s as a storehouse for baleen (whalebone). Court officials traveled from Edmonton for the trial of two Inuvialuit men charged with murder. Jury members were chosen in Fort McPherson, Arctic Red River (now Tsiigehtchic) and Herschel Island. The men were found guilty, and were hanged from a tie beam in the Bonehouse. The tie beam was removed by the RCMP when they left the island in 1963.</p><br>
<h2>Missionaries, police, and traders</h2><br>
<p>Anglican missionary Isaac Stringer first visited Herschel Island in 1893. He returned with his wife in 1896, and ministered to the people there until his departure in 1901. Stringer and other missionaries attempted to build a church on the island, but were not successful. A mission house was constructed in 1916 by Reverend Whittaker. This building still stands, but is in poor condition.</p><br>
<p>In 1903 RCMP Inspector Francis J. Fitzgerald visited Herschel Island. The following year, he and Constable Sutherland established a detachment on the island, which was at first based in two small sod huts. From 1910 to 1931 Herschel Island was subdistrict headquarters for the RCMP in the Western Arctic. Command was transferred to Aklavik in 1931, and Herschel Island was patrolled intermittently until 1948, when the detachment was reopened on a seasonal basis. On February 16, 1918 Herschel Island suffered its first loss of a police officer. Constable Alexander Lamont age 30, Badge Number 5548 Royal Northwest Mounted Police died of a duty related illness. Constable Lamont died from typhoid fever at Hershel Island, Yukon, while attending to the needs of another victim of the disease.</p><br>
<p>Sadly, on July 14, 1958, Herschel Island suffered another loss of a police officer. Constable Carl Lennart Sundell, aged 24 years, was stationed on board the RCMP supply schooner HERSCHEL at the time of his death and died as a result of an accidental shooting. He was shot while boarding the vessel which was in a cradle onshore for repairs. The RCMP post was closed permanently in 1964.</p><br>
<p>In 1915 the Hudson&#39;s Bay Company sent Mr. Christy Harding to Herschel Island to establish a post. Soon after his arrival he constructed a store, house, warehouse, and several other buildings. Business at the post was never lucrative. In 1937 the Bay closed its doors on the island, and its buildings were abandoned. None of them remain.</p><br>
<p>In 1926 the Northern Whaling and Trading Company constructed a store, warehouse and small shed on the island. These buildings still stand, though in recent years they have been moved as much as 10 meters inland, away from the receding shoreline.</p><br>
<h2>Modern developments</h2><br>
<p>While the island did see some renewed activity in the 1970s when it became a temporary safe harbour for oil-drilling ships, its last permanent, year-round residents (the MacKenzie family) left in 1987. Inuvialuit still use the island seasonally for hunting, fishing, and as a place to camp while travelling.</p><br>
<p>In 1978, a land claims agreement was reached in principle between the Inuvialuit and the Government of Canada. By 1984, the Inuvialuit Final Agreement (IFA) was in place. In 1987, Qikiqtaruk Territorial Park was created by the Government of Yukon in accordance with the terms of the IFA. The Government of Yukon and the Inuvialuit share responsibility for planning, managing, and protecting Herschel Island&#39;s natural and historic resources</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Herschel Island has an area of 116 km&sup2;. It is approximately 15 km by 8 km between shorelines, with a rolling tundra terrain that ranges in height from sea level to 182 m (596 ft).</p><br>
<p>The island was created from sediments that were thrust up by a lobe of Laurentide glacier ice emanating from the Mackenzie Valley and moving westward along the coastal plain approximately 30,000 years ago. There is no bedrock core to the island. The island is subject to very high rates of coastal erosion due to the ice-rich nature of the underlying permafrost, and its surface heaves and rolls down its own hillsides from the effects of frost creep and solifluction.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Herschel Island&#39;s climate is characterized by long, cold winters followed by short, but intense summers. Strong steady winds are prevalent throughout the year. July is the warmest month, with a mean temperature of 7.4 °C (45.3 °F) and a mean daytime high of 12.8 °C (55 °F), but can reach as high as 30 °C (86 °F). January temperatures average -27 °C (-16.6 °F) to -30 °C (-22 °F), but temperatures have been known to reach as low as -50 °C (-58 °F).</p><br>
<p>From November to early June, Herschel Island is locked in ice. Located north of the Arctic Circle, Herschel Island enjoys continuous daylight every year between May 19 and July 24. The sun does not appear above the horizon from November 29 to January 14, but significant twilight is experienced for a few hours in the late morning and early afternoon during the latter period.</p><br>
<h2>Fish and marine mammals</h2><br>
<p>The waters around Herschel Island are a haven for fish and marine mammals. The Mackenzie River flows into the Beaufort Sea southeast of the island. Its warm, nutrient-rich waters drift westward along the mainland shore as far as Herschel. Zooplankton feed on these nutrients, and are in turn eaten by larger fish, seals, and whales. Arctic cod, Arctic char, Pacific herring and Arctic flounder are all found in this area.</p><br>
<p>Whales travel past Herschel Island on their seasonal migration. Bowhead whales can still be seen from Herschel as they migrate westward to the Bering Sea in September, feeding close to the surface on krill. Beluga whales are also seen from the island during the open water period. Ringed seals are the most common marine mammals in this part of the Arctic, feeding on fish along the edges of the ice during the summer months.</p><br>
<p>The polar bear is a major predator of ringed seals. In summer they live along the edges of the pack ice near the island. In winter, a few female bears den on the island&#39;s northern slopes.</p><br>
<h2>Land mammals</h2><br>
<p>Small herds of Porcupine caribou (or Grant&#39;s caribou, Rangifer tarandus grantii) are frequently found on the island in summer. Muskox, and grizzly bears are occasionally seen, crossing to Herschel from the mainland. Lemmings, tundra voles and Arctic shrews are common. Red and Arctic foxes are also known to den on the island. Natal Arctic fox dens are found each year on the island, usually one or two, but occasionally more. Red foxes also reproduce on the island but natal red fox dens are not observed every year.</p><br>
<h2>Birds</h2><br>
<p>At least 94 bird species have been counted on Herschel Island, 40 of which breed there. The island hosts the largest colony of black guillemots in the western Arctic, nesting in the old Anglican mission house. Arctic terns, American golden plovers, and red-necked phalaropes make use of the tundra ponds and shingle beaches. Other birds that breed on the island include the common eider, rough-legged hawk, snow bunting, Lapland bunting, and redpoll.</p><br>
<h2>Vegetation</h2><br>
<p>Herschel Island is situated in the Yukon Coastal Plain ecoregion. The vegetation of this ecoregion is described as Arctic tundra, with continuous ground cover and no trees present.</p><br>
<p>There are over 200 species of plants on Herschel Island, which occur in a diversity of habitats. Most of the island is composed of level to gently sloping stable uplands, vegetated by cottongrass, ground shrubs and wildflowers.</p><br>
<p>From late June to early August, Herschel Island witnesses an explosion of colour. Its humid maritime climate during the growing season fosters a lush growth of tundra flowers, including vetches, louseworts, Arctic lupines, arnicas, and forget-me-nots.</p><br>
<h2>UNESCO site</h2><br>
<p>Herschel Island Territorial Park, together with Ivvavik National Park and Vuntut National Park (both on the Yukon mainland), is a leading contender to become Canada&#39;s next UNESCO World Heritage Site. The region is on Canada’s tentative list for a UNESCO nomination in both the cultural and natural categories.</p><br>
<h2>Climate change threats</h2><br>
<p>In 2007 the UNESCO World Heritage Centre published a report called Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage. The report states that a decrease in sea ice, and consequent increase in coastal erosion, poses a serious threat to Herschel Island&#39;s historic resources. The World Monuments Fund has placed Herschel Island on its 100 Most Endangered Sites, 2008 watch list, citing "rising sea levels, eroding coastline and melting permafrost" as imminent threats. Coastal erosion is up to 3 m per year in parts of the island’s coastline. There are several active thaw slumps of considerable size along the south-eastern shore of the island and they have increased in abundance and size over the last fifty years.</p><br>
<p>The Pic du Midi de Bigorre or simply the Pic du Midi  is a mountain in the French Pyrenees famous for its Pic du Midi Observatory.</p><br>
<h2>Pic du Midi Observatory</h2><br>
<p>The Pic du Midi Observatory (Observatoire du Pic du Midi) is an astronomical observatory located at 2877 meters on top of the Pic du Midi de Bigorre mountain in the French Pyrenees. It is part of the Midi-Pyrenees Observatory (Observatoire Midi-Pyrénées; OMP) which has additional research stations in the southwestern French towns of Tarbes, Lannemezan, and Auch, as well as many partnerships in South America, Africa, and Asia, due to the guardianship it receives from the French Research Institute for Development (IRD).</p><br>
<p>Construction of the observatory began in 1878 under the auspices of the Société Ramond, but by 1882 the society decided that the spiralling costs were beyond its relatively modest means, and yielded the observatory to the French state, which took it into its possession by a law of 7 August 1882. The 8 metre dome was completed in 1908, under the ambitious direction of Benjamin Baillaud. It housed a powerful mechanical equatorial reflector which was used in 1909 to formally discredit the Martian canal theory. In 1946 Mr. Gentilli funded a dome and a 0.60-meter telescope, and in 1958, a spectrograph was installed.</p><br>
<p>A 1.06-meter (42-inch) telescope was installed in 1963, funded by NASA and was used to take detailed photographs of the surface of the Moon in preparation for the Apollo missions. In 1965 the astronomers Pierre and Janine Connes were able to formulate a detailed analysis of the composition of the atmospheres on Mars and Venus, based on the infrared spectra gathered from these planets. The results showed atmospheres in chemical equilibrium. This served as a basis for James Lovelock, a scientist working for the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California, to predict that those planets had no life - a fact that would be proven and scientifically accepted years after.</p><br>
<p>A 2-meter telescope, known as the Bernard Lyot Telescope was placed at the observatory in 1980 on top of a 28-meter column built off to the side to avoid wind turbulence affecting the seeing of the other telescopes. It is the largest telescope in France. The observatory also has a coronagraph, which is used to study the solar corona. A 0.60-meter telescope (the Gentilly&#39;s T60 telescope) is also located at the top of Pic du Midi. Since 1982 this T60 is dedicated to amateur astronomy and managed by a group of amateurs, called association T60.</p><br>
<p>There are currently at the top:</p><br>
<p>The 0.55-meter telescope (Robley Dome)</p><br>
<p>The 0.60-meter telescope (T60 Dome, welcoming amateur astronomers via the Association T60)</p><br>
<p>The 1.06-meter telescope (Gentilli Dome) dedicated to observations of the solar system</p><br>
<p>The 2-meter telescope or Bernard Lyot Telescope (used with a new generation stellar spectropolarimeter)</p><br>
<p>The coronagraph HACO-CLIMSO (studies of the solar corona)</p><br>
<p>The bezel Jean Rösch (studies of the solar surface)</p><br>
<p>Also:</p><br>
<p>The Charvin dome, which sheltered a photoelectric coronometer (which studied the Sun)</p><br>
<p>The Baillaud dome, reassigned to the museum in 2000 and which houses a 1:1 scale model coronagraph.</p><br>
<p>The observatory is located at 42&deg;56&prime;N latitude, 0&deg;8&prime;E longitude, placing it very close to the Greenwich meridian. The observatory was featured in the video game Rainbow Six: Vegas 2 under a different name. The observatory in-game is said to be located on the fictional Pic des Pyrenees.</p><br>
<p>Saturn&#39;s moon Helene (Saturn XII or Dione B), was discovered by French astronomers Pierre Laques and Jean Lecacheux in 1980 from ground-based observations at this observatory, and named Helene in 1988. It is also a trojan moon of Dione.</p><br>
<p>The main-belt asteroid 20488 Pic-du-Midi, discovered at Pises Observatory in 1999, was named for the observatory and the mountain its located on.</p><br>
<h3>List of discovered minor planets</h3><br>
<p>The Minor Planet Center credits the discovery of the following minor planets directly to the observatory (as of 2017, no discoveries have been assigned to individual astronomers):</p><br>
<p>Ram Janmabhoomi  is the name given to the site that many Hindus believe to be the birthplace of Rama, the 7th avatar of the Hindu deity Vishnu.</p><br>
<p>The Ramayana states that the location of Ramas birthplace is on the banks of the Sarayu river in the city of Ayodhya. A section of Hindus claim that the exact site of Ramas birthplace is where the Babri Masjid once stood in the present-day Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh. According to this theory, the Mughals demolished a Hindu shrine that marked the spot, and constructed a mosque in its place. People opposed to this theory state that such claims arose only in the 18th century, and that there is no evidence for the spot being the birthplace of Rama.</p><br>
<p>The political, historical and socio-religious debate over the history and location of the Babri Mosque, and whether a previous temple was demolished or modified to create it, is known as the Ayodhya dispute.</p><br>
<p>In 1992, the demolition of Babri Masjid by Hindu nationalists triggered widespread Hindu-Muslim violence. Since then, the archaeological excavations have indicated the presence of a temple beneath the mosque rubble.</p><br>
<p>Several other sites, including places in other parts of India, Afghanistan, and Nepal, have been proposed as birthplaces of Rama.</p><br>
<h2>Babri Masjid site</h2><br>
<p>The Ramayana, a Hindu epic whose earliest portions date back to 1st millennium BCE, states that the capital of Rama was Ayodhya. A section of Hindus claim that the site of the now-demolished Babri Mosque in Ayodhya is the exact birthplace of Rama. The mosque was constructed during 1528-29 by Mir Baqi, a commander of the Mughal emperor Babur.</p><br>
<p>The earliest extant account of the mosque&#39;s connection to the birthplace of Rama comes from the European Jesuit missionary Joseph Tiefenthaler, who visited the site during 1766-1771. Johann Bernoulli translated his account from French, and included it in his 1788 work. According to this account, either Aurangazeb or Babur had demolished the Ramkot fortress, including the house that was considered as the birthplace of Rama by Hindus. He further states that a mosque was constructed in its place, but the Hindus continued to offer prayers at a mud platform that marked the birthplace of Rama. In 1810, Francis Buchanan visited the site, and stated that the structure destroyed was a temple dedicated to Rama, not a house. Many subsequent sources state that the mosque was constructed after demolishing a temple.</p><br>
<p>Before the 1940s, the Babri Masjid was called Masjid-i-Janmasthan ("mosque of the birthplace"), including in the official documents such as revenue records. Shykh Muhammad Azamat Ali Kakorawi Nami (1811–1893) wrote: "the Babari mosque was built up in 923(?) A.H. under the patronage of Sayyid Musa Ashiqan in the Janmasthan temple in Faizabad-Avadh, which was a great place of (worship) and capital of Rama’s father"</p><br>
<p>H.R. Neville wrote that the Janmasthan temple "was destroyed by Babur and replaced by a mosque." He also wrote "The Janmasthan was in Ramkot and marked the birthplace of Rama. In 1528 A.D. Babur came to Ayodhya and halted here for a week. He destroyed the ancient temple and on its site built a mosque, still known as Babur&#39;s mosque. The materials of the old structure were largely employed, and many of the columns were in good preservation."</p><br>
<h3>Opposition to the claim</h3><br>
<p>A section of historians, such as R. S. Sharma, state that such claims of Babri Masjid site being the birthplace of Rama sprang up only after the 18th century. Sharma states that Ayodhya emerged as a place of Hindu pilgrimage only in medieval times, since ancient texts do not mention it as a pilgrim centre. For example, chapter 85 of the Vishnu Smriti lists 52 places of pilgrimage, which do not include Ayodhya. Sharma also notes that Tulsidas, who wrote the Ramcharitmanas in 1574 at Ayodhya, does not mention it as a place of pilgrimage. Rambhadracharya, on the other hand, has quoted a work of Tulsidas known as Dohā Śataka and is recorded in Allahbad High Court&#39;s verdict which clearly states the demolition of a temple, and building of a mosque.</p><br>
<p>Many critics also claim that the present-day Ayodhya was originally a Buddhist site, based on its identification with Saketa described in Buddhist texts. According to historian Romila Thapar, ignoring the Hindu mythological accounts, the first historic mention of the city dates back to the 7th century, when the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang described it as a Buddhist site.</p><br>
<h3>Proposed Ram Janmabhoomi temple</h3><br>
<p>In 1853, a group of armed Hindu ascetics belonging to the Nirmohi Akhara occupied the Babri Masjid site, and claimed ownership of the structure. Subsequently, the civil administration stepped in, and in 1855, divided the mosque premises into two parts: one for Hindus, and the other for Muslims.</p><br>
<p>In 1883, the Hindus launched an effort to construct a temple on the platform. When the administration denied them the permission to do this, they took the matter to court. In 1885, the Hindu Sub Judge Pandit Hari Kishan Singh dismissed the lawsuit. Subsequently, the higher courts also dismissed the lawsuit in 1886, in favour of status quo. In December 1949, some Hindus placed idols of Rama and Sita in the mosque, and claimed that they had miraculously appeared there. As thousands of Hindu devotees started visiting the place, the Government declared the mosque a disputed area and locked its gates. Subsequently, multiple lawsuits from Hindus, asking for permission to convert the site into a place of worship.</p><br>
<p>In the 1980s, the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) and other Hindu nationalist groups and political parties launched a campaign to construct the Ram Janmabhoomi Mandir ("Rama birthplace temple") at the site. The Rajiv Gandhi government allowed Hindus to access the site for prayers. On 6 December 1992, Hindu nationalists demolished the mosque, resulting in communal riots leading to over 2,000 deaths.</p><br>
<p>In 2003, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) conducted excavations of the site on court orders. The ASI report indicated the presence of a 10th-century temple under the mosque. Muslim groups and the historians supporting them disputed these findings, and dismissed them as politically motivated. The Allahabad High Court, however, upheld the ASI&#39;s findings. In 2010, Court ruled that the 2.77 acre of Ayodhya land be divided into 3 parts, with 1/3 going to the Ram Lalla or Infant Lord Rama represented by the Hindu Maha Sabha for the construction of the Ram temple, 1/3 going to the Islamic Sunni Waqf Board and the remaining 1/3 going to a Hindu religious denomination Nirmohi Akhara. The excavations by the Archaeological Survey of India were heavily used as evidence by the court that the predating structure was a massive Hindu religious building.</p><br>
<p>In 2009, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) released its election manifesto, repeating its promise to construct a temple to Rama at the site.</p><br>
<h2>Other places</h2><br>
<p>Those who believe that Rama was a historic figure place his birth before 1000 BCE. However, the archaeological excavations at Ayodhya have not revealed any settlement before that date. Consequently, a number of other places have been suggested as the birthplace of Rama.</p><br>
<p>In November 1990, the newly appointed Prime Minister Chandra Shekhar made an attempt to resolve the Ayodhya dispute amicably. Towards this objective, he asked Hindu and Muslim groups to exchange evidence on their claims over Ayodhya. The panel representing the Muslim organization Babri Masjid Action Committee (BMAC) was included R. S. Sharma, D. N. Jha, M. Athar Ali and Suraj Bhan. The evidence presented by them included scholarly articles discussing alternative theories about the birthplace of Rama. These sources mentioned 8 different possible birthplaces, including a site other than Babri Masjid in Ayodhya, Nepal and Afghanistan. One source claimed that Rama was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt.</p><br>
<p>In his 1992 book Ancient geography of Ayodhya, historian Shyam Narain Pande argued that Rama was born around present-day Herat in Afghanistan. In 1997, Pande presented his theory in the paper "Historical Rama distinguished from God Rama" at the 58th session of the Indian History Congress in Bangalore. In 2000, Rajesh Kochhar similarly traced the birthplace of Rama to Afghanistan, in his book The Vedic People: Their History and Geography. According to him, the Harriud river of Afghanistan is the original "Sarayu", and Ayodhya was located on its banks.</p><br>
<p>In 1998, archaeologist Krishna Rao put forward his hypothesis about Banawali being Rama&#39;s birthplace. Banawali is an Indus-Sarasvati civilization archaeological site located in the Haryana state of India. Rao identified Rama with the Sumerian king Rim-Sin I and his rival Ravana with the Babylonian king Hammurabi. He claimed to have deciphered Indus seals found along the Sarasvati rivers, and found the words "Rama Sena" (Rim-Sin) and "Ravani dama" on those seals. He rejected Ayodhya as the birthplace of Rama, on the grounds that Ayodhya and other Ramayana sites excavated by B. B. Lal do not show evidence of settlements before 1000 BCE. He also claimed that the writers of the later epics and the Puranas got confused because the ancient Indo-Aryans applied their ancient place names to the new place names as they migrated eastwards.</p><br>
<p>In 2015, Abdul Rahim Quraishi of the All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB), argued that Rama was born somewhere in present-day northwestern India or Pakistan. In his book Facts of Ayodhya Episode (Myth of Ram Janmabhoomi), he cited writings of former ASI official Jassu Ram, who argued that Rehman Dheri was the birthplace of Rama. Rehman Dheri is located near Dera Ismail Khan in present-day Pakistan, and was earlier called "Ram Dheri" according to Jassu Ram. Quraishi argued that the present-day Ayodhya was originally called Saket, and Hindus probably renamed it to "Ayodhya" in the 11th century CE.</p><br>
<p>Church Hill, also known as the St. John&#39;s Church Historic District, is an Old and Historic District in Richmond, Virginia. This district encompasses the original land plat of the city of Richmond. Church Hill is the eastern terminus of Broad Street, a major east-west thoroughfare in the Richmond metropolitan area. The name Church Hill is often used to describe both the specific historic district and the larger general area in the East End encompassing other neighborhoods such as Union Hill, Chimborazo, Fairmount, Peter Paul, Woodville, etc.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early United States, Civil War, and Revolution</h3><br>
<p>Church Hill is known for Chimborazo Park, where the largest American Civil War Hospital was located. It is also known as the site of Virginias second revolutionary convention, where Patrick Henry gave his "Give me liberty or give me death" speech in St. Johns Episcopal Church, Richmond, Virginia in 1775.</p><br>
<h3>20th Century</h3><br>
<p>On Friday, October 2, 1925, a 4,000-foot Chesapeake and Ohio railroad single track tunnel built during Reconstruction collapsed under Church Hill. The Church Hill Tunnel collapse occurred during refurbishment works, killing 3 or 4 and engulfing a work train complete with a 4-4-0 engine #231 and 10 flat cars. The tunnel was closed and filled-in after the collapse. In the July 2006, a coalition of officials and historical groups made plans to remove the buried engine. If recovered, it would be displayed at the Virginia Historical Society in Richmond. Some borings were made into the tunnel from above for examination by camera. Only murky water was found, whereupon further work was delayed by city permitting issues. The bricked-in entrance of the collapsed tunnel can still be seen at the south-east end of the alley just north of Marshall Street, on 18th Street.</p><br>
<p>Douglas Wilder, the first African American to have been elected governor of a USA state, was born and raised in Church Hill.</p><br>
<p>In the 1970s, murder rates decreased overall in Richmond, Virginia, but instances of murder in Church Hill doubled.</p><br>
<h3>21st Century</h3><br>
<p>In recent years, Church Hill has undergone gentrification and now experiences much lower rates of crime than it did in the late 20th century.</p><br>
<p>Church Hill is home to many small businesses, including restaurants, bars, hair salons, and boutiques. In 2014, Church Hill was named one of the "" by Zagat. In 2015, Redfin included Church Hill in a roundup of —while Richmond was named #9 in their list of Top 10 Most Walkable Mid-Sized Cities.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation Efforts</h2><br>
<p>The Church Hill neighborhood experienced serious physical decline during the 1950s, owing mostly to absentee landlords. The Historic Richmond Foundation was established in 1956 by Elisabeth Scott Bocock out of concern for "saving and enhancing the setting for St. Johns Church." In 1957, encouraged in large part by Historic Richmond, City Council created a historic district ordinance while simultaneously adopting the St. Johns Church Old and Historic District. The preservation of Church Hill marked the formal beginning of the preservation movement in Richmond.</p><br>
<h2>Notable Structures, Monuments and Parks</h2><br>
<p>St. John&#39;s Episcopal Church (Richmond, Virginia)</p><br>
<p>Adams Double House</p><br>
<p>Chimborazo Park</p><br>
<p>Elmira Shelton House</p><br>
<p>Jefferson Park</p><br>
<p>Libby Hill Park</p><br>
<p>Pohlig Brothers Building</p><br>
<p>Richmond Hill (a/k/a the Adams-Taylor House or Monte Maria)</p><br>
<p>Confederate Soldiers and Sailors Monument</p><br>
<p>St. John&#39;s Mews</p><br>
<p>Superior Warehouse</p><br>
<p>Woodward House</p><br>
<p>WRVA Building</p><br>
<h2>Maps</h2><br>
<p>The Mother Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church is a historic church and congregation at 419 South 6th Street in Center City Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. The congregation, founded in 1794, is the oldest African Methodist Episcopal congregation in the nation. Its present church, completed in 1890, is the oldest church property in the United States to be continuously owned by African Americans. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1972.</p><br>
<h2>History of the congregation</h2><br>
<p>The church was organized by African-American members of St. George&#39;s Methodist Church who walked out due to racial segregation in the worship services. Mother Bethel was one of the first African-American churches in the United States, dedicated July 29, 1794, by Bishop Francis Asbury. On October 12, 1794, Reverend Robert Blackwell announced that the congregation was received in full fellowship in the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1816 Rev Richard Allen brought together other black Methodist congregations from the region to organize the new African Methodist Episcopal Church denomination. He was elected bishop of this denomination. After the American Civil War, its missionaries went to the South to help freedmen and planted many new churches in the region.</p><br>
<p>Allen and his wife, Sarah Allen are both buried in the present church&#39;s crypt. The current church building was constructed in 1888-1890, and it has been designated a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Building history</h2><br>
<p>The property was acquired for the new congregation in 1794. Its first building was a frame structure originally used as a blacksmith&#39;s shop, which was hauled to the site. This building was later replaced by frame structures in 1805 and 1841. The 1841 church was reported to have a tunnel connecting it with a nearby Quaker meetinghouse to facilitate the movements of fugitive slaves. The present building, completed in 1890, is a three-story masonry structure with Romanesque styling. Its large round-arch windows are adorned with stained glass from Germany.</p><br>
<p>Vouliagmeni  is a seaside town and former municipality 20 km south of Athens, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Vari-Voula-Vouliagmeni, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 5.805 km. Its population was 4,180 at the 2011 census. In 1993 and again in 2009, it hosted the annual meeting of the Bilderberg Group.</p><br>
<p>The suburb is named after Lake Vouliagmeni, located in its vicinity.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Vouliagmeni sits on the southwestern foot of the Hymettus mountain range. It is bisected by a palm tree lined boulevard, Athinas Avenue, which arrives from Athens as Vouliagmenis Avenue, then runs parallel to the seashore and continues southwards. The area east of the main road is the rocky slope of a foothill of Mount Hymettus, and the bulk of the town is built there, along with the local elementary school, post office, banks and town hall.</p><br>
<p>The western half, located between Athinas Avenue and the sea, is covered with pine trees and consists of two peninsulas, Megalo and Mikro Kavouri ("Big Crab" and "Little Crab") that feature sandy and pebble beaches in between rocky shores, luxury hotels (including the Astir Palace Hotel occupying most of Mikro Kavouri), the local high school, the picturesque chapel of "St. George of the crab", two marinas, an aquatic sports club (the "Nautical Club of Vouliagmeni", see below), a sports club (soccer, basketball, volleyball, tennis) and upscale restaurants, taverns and cafeterias on the waterfront.</p><br>
<p>The Mikro Kavouri is connected to the mainland with a narrow, sandy isthmus commonly referred to as "Laimos" (λαιμός, i.e. the "Neck"), flanked by one public beach on one side and Astir Palace beach on the other side. The Megalo Kavouri is land largely owned by the Church of Greece, which maintains an enclosed, protected pine forest and an orphanage. An air force camp is also located there. Dotted with lavish villas, the two Kavouri areas are among the most expensive pieces of housing real estate in Greece.</p><br>
<p>The Vouliagmeni beaches are consistently awarded the coveted EU blue flags for environmental excellence. The triathlon competition for the 2004 Summer Olympics took place in this area. The small, rocky islet of Fleves lies off shore.</p><br>
<p>After 1-1-2011 Vouliagmeni joined Vari and Voula, according to Kallikratis regulations, in a joined municipality. Grigoris Kasidokostas is the new mayor elected at 14 November 2010 for the new joined municipality.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Ruins of the Temple of Apollo Zoster have been excavated and can be viewed inside the public Astir Hotel beach. According to legend, when Leto was about to give birth to Apollo and Artemis, she fled writhing in pain to Delos. During her flight she discarded her girdle, which fell on the Mikro Kavouri peninsula. When her son, the god Apollo, was born, he picked up the discarded girdle and girdled himself in honour of his mother, and was hence named "Zoster" (Girt). Other remnants of early human habitation found in Vouliagmeni include Neolithic and Bronze Age building foundations, and a 5th-century BC outpost. In classical times the area was the deme of Aixōnídes Halaí (Αἰξωνίδες Ἁλαί), i.e. the Saltfields of Aixōnē (modern day Glyfada). The deme&#39;s citizens were called Ἁλαεῖς, Halaeīs.</p><br>
<h2>Nautical Club of Vouliagmeni</h2><br>
<p>The Nautical Club of Vouliagmeni, or "NOV" (Greek: Ναυτικός Όμιλος Βουλιαγμένης, "NOB") was founded by local sportsmen in 1937 and is located on the eastern edge of the Mikro Kavouri, adjacent to the Astir Palace Hotel and overlooking the bay, town and lake. The club admits members and their guests and operates a marina, a waterskiing school, junior and Olympic competition sailing boats and facilities, an open-air, heated swimming pool, two rocky beaches, members indoor and outdoor lounges, a gym, and a restaurant. The pool hosts swimming, finswimming, synchronized swimming and water polo teams and the respective training schools for children. The womens and mens water polo teams are considered a traditional force in European water polo and have won many Greek and several European Championships and Cups. The club often hosts LEN Euroleague and LEN Cup tournaments, its star players consistently being capped for the Greece mens national water polo team and Greece women&#39;s national water polo team. The club crest depicts a blue anchor set inside a white lifebuoy with eight crimson stripes; blue, white and crimson being the club colors.</p><br>
<h2>Lake Vouliagmeni</h2><br>
<p>Immediately to the south of town and very close to the sea, a rare geological formation is to be found that gave the suburb its modern name: Lake Vouliagmeni ("Sunken Lake"), a small brackish-water lake fed by underground currents seeping through the mass of Mount Hymettus. Because of its constant and comfortable water temperature —at about 24ºCelsius— the lake functions as a year-round spa.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<p>Drakes Bay is a 4 miles wide bay named so by USA surveyor George Davidson in 1875 along the Point Reyes National Seashore on the coast of northern California in the United States, approximately 30 miles  northwest of San Francisco at approximately 38 degrees north latitude. The bay is approximately 8 miles  wide. It is formed on the lee side of the coastal current by Point Reyes. The portions of the bay related to Francis Drakes 1579 visit, Sebastião Rodrigues Soromenhos 1595 visit and their interactions with the Coast Miwok were designated as the Drakes Bay Historic and Archaeological District, a National Historic Landmark, on October 17, 2012.</p><br>
<p>The bay is fed by Drake&#39;s Estero, an expansive estuary on the Point Reyes peninsula. The estuary is protected by Estero de Limantour State Marine Reserve & Drakes Estero State Marine Conservation Area. Point Reyes State Marine Reserve & Point Reyes State Marine Conservation Area lie within Drakes Bay. Like underwater parks, these marine protected areas help conserve ocean wildlife and marine ecosystems.</p><br>
<p>The bay is named after Sir Francis Drake and has long been considered Drake&#39;s most likely landing spot on the west coast of North America during his circumnavigation of the world by sea in 1579. An alternative name for this bay is Puerto De Los Reyes.</p><br>
<p>Bolinas Lagoon is a tidal estuary, approximately 1,100 acre in area, located in the West Marin region of Marin County, California, United States, adjacent to the town of Bolinas. It is a part of the Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary and is considered to be among the possible landing spots of Sir Francis Drake on the west coast of North America in 1579.</p><br>
<p>The lagoon is a back bay of Bolinas Bay on the Pacific coast approximately 15 mi (25 km) northwest of San Francisco. The trough in which the lagoon sits was formed by the San Andreas Fault, which runs directly through it. The lagoon is separated from the main bay by a small spit of land, known as Stinson Beach, and the sand bar that encloses this lagoon is full of beachgoers and surfers on hot days, seeking to escape the heat and the urban Bay Area. State Route 1, the Shoreline Highway, runs along the eastern edge of the lagoon.</p><br>
<p>Bolinas Lagoon is on the list of wetlands of international importance as defined by the Ramsar Convention for the conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands. Portions of the lagoon are included in Bolinas Lagoon County Park, and the western shore is part of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area.</p><br>
<p>The lagoon has a 16.7 square miles watershed; streams and canyons feeding into it include Audubon Canyon, McKinnan Gulch, Morses Gulch, Picher Canyon, Pike County Gulch, Stinson Gulch, Volunteer Canyon, and Wilkins Gulch. Kent Island is located in the lagoon.</p><br>
<p>Duxbury Reef State Marine Conservation Area lies offshore from Bolinas. Like an underwater park, this protected marine area helps conserve ocean wildlife and marine ecosystems.</p><br>
<p>Laurier House is a National Historic Site in Ottawa, Ontario, located at 335 Laurier Avenue East . It was formerly the residence of two Canadian prime ministers: Sir Wilfrid Laurier  and William Lyon Mackenzie King. The house was built in 1878, but had significant later alterations. It now exhibits elements of the Italianate manner as well as traces of Second Empire style.</p><br>
<p>Laurier lived there from 1897 until his death in 1919. His wife, Zoé Laurier, willed the house to Mackenzie King upon her death in 1921. King then lived there from 1923 until his death in 1950 and he willed the house to the Canadian Crown. The Cabinet then briefly considered designating Laurier House as the permanent official residence of the prime minister. However, the Prime Minister at the time, Louis St. Laurent, opposed designating it as such. Instead, 24 Sussex Drive—a property the Crown had acquired a few years earlier through expropriation—was selected and designated as the prime minister&#39;s official residence in 1951.</p><br>
<p>Many distinguished Canadian guests were received at this house, such as King George VI, as well as foreign guests like Sir Winston Churchill, Charles de Gaulle, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and others.</p><br>
<p>Under the terms of the Laurier House Act 1951, the house and its grounds were entrusted to the National Capital Commission (NCC), the Department of Public Works, and Library and Archives Canada. Since 1988, the house has been administered by Parks Canada as part of the national park system, operating it as a public museum. However, the NCC continues to maintain the grounds and the national archives retains ownership of all archival materials in the house. Laurier House is open to the public for guided tours from Victoria Day in May until Thanksgiving in October.</p><br>
<p>Bodega Bay is a shallow, rocky inlet of the Pacific Ocean on the coast of northern California in the United States. It is approximately 5 mi across and is located approximately 40 mi northwest of San Francisco and 20 mi west of Santa Rosa. The bay straddles the boundary between Sonoma County to the north and Marin County to the south. The bay is a marine habitat used for navigation, recreation, and commercial and sport fishing including shellfish harvesting.</p><br>
<p>Bodega Bay is protected on its north end from the Pacific Ocean by Bodega Head, which shelters the small Bodega Harbor and is separated from the main bay by a jetty. The San Andreas Fault runs parallel to the coastline and bisects Bodega Head, which lies on the Pacific Plate; the town is on the North American Plate. The village of Bodega Bay sits on the east side of Bodega Harbor. The bay connects on its south end to the mouth of Tomales Bay.</p><br>
<p>Streams flowing into Bodega Bay include the Estero de San Antonio and the Estero Americano.</p><br>
<p>Accessible beaches on Bodega Bay include Doran Regional Park (on the jetty) and Pinnacle Gulch.</p><br>
<p>Apart from the harbor, all of Bodega Bay lies within the boundaries of the Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Coast Miwok Native Americans lived on the shores of Bodega Bay. Documented village names include: Helapattai, Hime-takala, Ho-takala, and Tokau.</p><br>
<p>There is speculation that Bodega Bay may have been Sir Francis Drake&#39;s Nova Albion landing location on the California coast.</p><br>
<p>Present day Bodega Bay was first charted in 1775 by the Spanish Peruvian explorer of the Spanish Navy Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra, but the bay that was originally named for him was not present day Bodega, but Tomales Bay. His ship, the Sonora, anchored in the lee of Tomales Point on October 3, 1775, departing the next day. Bodega y Quadra named Tomales Bay Puerto de la Bodega. "There is no evidence in the journal or on the charts that Bodega y Quadra ever saw the entrance to Bodega Harbor or knew of the lagoon to the north". Bodega y Quadra planned to return, but was not able to. Later, as commandant of the naval base at San Blas, New Spain, Bodega y Quadra sent other expeditions to Bodega Bay with the intention of establishing a colony and mission there. It was decided, however, that the location was non-ideal.</p><br>
<p>The first Russians to see Bodega Bay were the supervisors of the Aleut hunting parties aboard the American otter hunting ship Peacock in 1807. Timofei Osipovich Tarakanov of the Russian-American Company returned to Novo Arkhangelsk, Alaska and reported the location to Alexander Andreyevich Baranov, the chief administrator of the RAC. Baranov instructed his assistant Ivan Kuskov to survey the area for a settlement. Kuskov, the Commerce Counselor of the Russian-American Company sailing in the Kodiak, entered Bodega Bay on January 8, 1809. Instructed by Baranov to leave "secret signs" (possession plates), Kuskov buried possession plaques at Trinidad Harbor, Bodega Head (or Tomales Point) and on the north shore of San Francisco Bay, indicating the companys intention to claim this section of northern California for Russia. Temporary buildings were erected to house the ships complement of 190 crew (130 native Alaskan males, 20 native females, and 40 Russians)</p><br>
<p>The Kodiak remained in Bodega Bay until October 1809, returning to Alaska with more than 2,000 otter pelts. Kuskov returned to Novo Arkhangelsk, reporting abundant fur bearing mammals, fish, timber and tillable lands. Baranov instructed Kuskov to return and establish a permanent settlement in the area. In 1811 Kuskov returned, this time aboard the Chirikov but found fewer otter in Bodega Bay (only 1,160 otter skins were taken). Three American ships were also operating in the area from a base in Drake&#39;s Bay, sending hunters into San Francisco Bay and the surrounding bays.</p><br>
<p>Kuskov sailed the Brig Chirikov back to present day Bodega Harbor on March 15, 1812; and as Bodega Anchorage and Bodega Harbor had not been claimed by the Spanish" Kuskov named it in honor of the Russian Minister of Commerce, Count Nikolai Petrovich Rumyantsev.</p><br>
<p>Zaliv Rumyantsev (Rumyantsev Bay) appears on the earliest Russian charts of Bodega Bay (1817–1819) identifying present day Bodega Bay and Bodega Harbor. Bodega Head was named Mouis Rumyantsev (Point Rumyantsev). Tomales Point was named Point Great Bodega and Tomales Bay Great Bodega Bay, more or less conforming to Bodega y Quadra&#39;s original naming.</p><br>
<p>On his return Kuskov found otter now scarce in Bodega Bay, the harbor having been frequented by numerous American and English otter-hunting expeditions. After exploring the area they ended up selecting a place 15 mi north that the native Kashaya Pomo people called Mad shui nui or Metini. Metini, the seasonal home of the native Kashaya Pomo people, had a modest anchorage and abundant natural resources and would become the Russian settlement of Fort Ross.</p><br>
<p>By 1817 sea otter in the area were practically eliminated by international over-hunting. Zaliv Rumyantsev continued to be the main entrepôt for the Russian Colony until January 1842, and the earliest European structures built at Bodega Bay were the wharf, warehouse and barracks of the Russian-American Company.</p><br>
<p>Bodega Bay remained an active harbor for shipping lumber until the 1870s, when the North Pacific Coast Railroad was built, bypassing the coast in favor of a more inland route.</p><br>
<p>A plan by Pacific Gas & Electric to build a nuclear power plant received significant negative attention from local citizens, beginning in 1958. By 1964, the plans for the plant were abandoned.</p><br>
<p>Bodega Bay was the setting for the 1963 Alfred Hitchcock film, The Birds, starring Rod Taylor, Tippi Hedren and Suzanne Pleshette.</p><br>
<p>In October of 2017, Botega Bay, on the northwest edge of Sonoma County, served as a site of refuge and supply depot for evacuees from an historic fast-moving destructive fire in northern California. People from Santa Rosa and other regions affected by the raging wildfire started pouring in not long after the blazes started.</p><br>
<h2>Marine protected areas near Bodega Bay</h2><br>
<p>Like underwater parks, these marine protected areas help conserve ocean wildlife and marine ecosystems.</p><br>
<p>Russian River State Marine Reserve and Russian River State Marine Conservation Area</p><br>
<p>Bodega Head State Marine Reserve & Bodega Head State Marine Conservation Area</p><br>
<p>Estero Americano State Marine Recreational Management Area</p><br>
<p>Estero de San Antonio State Marine Recreational Management Area</p><br>
<p>San Pablo Bay is a tidal estuary that forms the northern extension of San Francisco Bay in the East Bay and North Bay regions of the San Francisco Bay Area in northern California.</p><br>
<p>Most of the Bay is shallow; however, there is a deep water channel approximately in the middle of the bay, which allows access to major ports in Sacramento, Stockton, Benicia, and Martinez; and other smaller ports on the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>San Pablo Bay was named after Rancho San Pablo, a Spanish land grant given to colonial Alta California settlers in 1815, on the bay at the site of the present-day city of San Pablo. The bay is approximately 10 mi across and has an area of approximately 90 square miles.</p><br>
<p>The bay receives the waters of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, via Suisun Bay and the Carquinez Strait on its northeast end, and it connects to the Pacific Ocean via the San Francisco Bay on its southern end. The bay is heavily silted from the contributions of the two rivers, which themselves drain most of the Central Valley of California. San Pablo Bay also receives the waters of Sonoma Creek through the Napa Sonoma Marsh, San Rafael Creek, and the Petaluma River directly, and the Napa River which flows into the Carquinez Strait via the Mare Island Strait near its entrance into the bay. All tributaries except for Sonoma Creek are commercially navigable and maintained by the USA Army Corps of Engineers.</p><br>
<p>Two peninsulas separate San Pablo Bay from San Francisco Bay. The eastern is in the City of Richmond and the western in the City of San Rafael. The bay is shared between Contra Costa county on the southern and eastern shore, and Solano, Sonoma and Marin counties on the northern and western shores. The county boundaries meet near the center of the bay. Communities on the shores of San Pablo Bay include: Richmond, San Pablo, Pinole, Hercules, Rodeo in Contra Costa County, Vallejo in Solano County, along with Novato and San Rafael in Marin County.</p><br>
<p>Because the Bay is close to several major and local airports, but outside of the main air traffic corridors, it is a popular pilot training area.</p><br>
<p>Because of its great size but shallow waters, San Pablo Bay frequently has difficult boating conditions. The prevailing western wind meets strong currents both at Carquinez Straits and, at the opposite end of the bay, near the Richmond Bridge, to produce large waves, with few areas of retreats for most boats.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>There are many undeveloped shore lands with salt marshes and mudflats. The Bay is a primary wintering stop for the canvasback duck population on the Pacific Flyway, as well as a migratory staging ground for numerous species of waterfowl. Much of the northern shore of the bay is protected as part of the San Pablo Bay National Wildlife Refuge.</p><br>
<p>Endangered species that are found in the bay include the California brown pelican, California clapper rail, and salt marsh harvest mouse. This is a popular destination for recreation fishing, with Saltwater species including: striped bass, surfperch, sturgeon, starry flounder, leopard shark, topsmelt, and anchovy. In the 1880s there was a shrimp-fishing village, where some 500 Chinese people lived; they shipped approximately 90% of their catch to China. The location is now part of China Camp State Park.</p><br>
<h2>Popular culture</h2><br>
<p>San Pablo Bay is the setting of alternative rock band Primuss four-part song series "Fishermans Chronicles," and is also referenced in "The Toys Go Winding Down" and "Harold of the Rocks." It is also mentioned in The Minus 5 song "John Barleycorn Must Live." In Susan Chois book, American Woman, which mirrors the Patty Hearst scandal of the 1970s, the Bays waters are said to welcome main characters Jenny and Pauline home after they&#39;ve traversed from the East coast.</p><br>
<p>West Potomac Park is a USA national park in Washington, D.C., adjacent to the National Mall. It includes the parkland that extends south of the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool, from the Lincoln Memorial to the grounds of the Washington Monument. The park is the site of many national landmarks, including the Korean War Veterans Memorial, Jefferson Memorial, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, George Mason Memorial, and the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial.</p><br>
<p>The park includes the surrounding land on the shore of the Tidal Basin, an artificial inlet of the Potomac River which was created in the 19th century, an inlet that links the Potomac with the northern end of the Washington Channel.</p><br>
<p>West Potomac Park is administered by the National Park Service.</p><br>
<h2>Creation of the park</h2><br>
<p>Almost none of the National Mall west of the Washington Monument grounds and below Constitution Avenue NW existed prior to 1882. After terrible flooding inundated much of downtown Washington, D.C., in 1881, Congress ordered the Army Corps of Engineers to dredge a deep channel in the Potomac and use the material to fill in the Potomac (creating the current banks of the river) and raise much of the land near the White House and along Pennsylvania Avenue NW by nearly 6 ft. In the process, the nearby Babcock Lakes, a series of small ponds, were filled in. This "reclaimed land" — which included West Potomac Park, East Potomac Park, the Tidal Basin — was largely complete by 1890, and designated Potomac Park by Congress in 1897. Congress first appropriated money for the beautification of the reclaimed land in 1902, which led to the planting of sod, bushes, and trees; grading and paving of sidewalks, bridle paths, and driveways; and the installation of water, drainage, and sewage pipes.</p><br>
<h2>Cherry trees</h2><br>
<p>The famous sakura (Japanese cherry trees) of Washington line the Tidal Basin and are the main attraction at the National Cherry Blossom Festival in early spring, when the cherry blossoms bloom. Eliza Ruhamah Scidmore, upon returning to Washington from a visit to Japan, initiated the idea of cherry trees in Washington, approaching the Superintendent of Public Building and Grounds (then Colonel Spencer Cosby) in 1885. Her idea was rejected; over the next 24 years, Scidmore approached every new superintendent, but the idea never came to fruition. In 1906, Dr. David Fairchild, a botanist who worked for the USA Department of Agriculture, imported 75 flowering cherry trees and 25 single-flowered weeping types from the Yokohama Nursery Company in Japan. Fairchild planted these trees on a hillside on his own property in Chevy Chase, Maryland, testing their hardiness in the Washington area. In 1907, pleased with the success of the trees, Fairchild and his wife began to promote Japanese flowering cherry trees as the ideal type of tree to plant along avenues in the Washington area. Friends of family also became interested, and on September 26, arrangements were completed with the Chevy Chase Land Company to order 300 Oriental cherry trees for the Chevy Chase area.</p><br>
<p>In 1908, Fairchild gave cherry saplings to boys from each school in the District to plant in schoolyards on Arbor Day. In closing his Arbor Day speech, Fairchild expressed a vision that the "Speedway" (the present day corridor of Independence Avenue in West Potomac Park) be transformed into a "Field of Cherries". In attendance was Eliza Scidmore, whom afterwards he referred to as a great authority on Japan. In 1909, Scidmore decided to try to raise the money required to purchase the cherry trees and then donate the trees to the city. Scidmore sent a note outlining her new plan to the new First Lady, Helen Herron Taft&mdash;the wife of President William Howard Taft&mdash; who had once lived in Japan and was familiar with the beauty of the flowering cherry trees. Two days later, the First Lady responded:</p><br>
<p>On April 8, the day after Taft&#39;s letter, Dr. Jokichi Takamine, the Japanese chemist famous as the discoverer of adrenaline and takadiastase, was in Washington with Midzuno, the Japanese consul in New York City. When told Washington was to have Japanese cherry trees planted along the Speedway, he asked whether the First Lady would accept a donation of an additional 2,000 trees. Midzuno thought it was a fine idea and suggested the trees be given in the name of the capital city of Tokyo. Takamine and Midzuno met with the Helen Taft, who accepted the offer.</p><br>
<p>On April 13, five days after the First Lady&#39;s request, the Superintendent of Public Building and Grounds ordered the purchase of 90 cherry trees (Prunus serrulata) of the Fugnezo variety from Hoopes Brothers and Thomas Company in West Chester, Pennsylvania. The trees were planted along the Potomac River from the present site of the Lincoln Memorial south toward East Potomac Park. After planting, it was discovered that the trees were not correctly named, and were not of the Fugnezo variety, but instead of the Shirofugen cultivar (cultivated variety). These trees have since disappeared.</p><br>
<p>Some months later, on August 30, the Japanese embassy informed the USA Department of State that Tokyo intended to donate 2,000 cherry trees to the United States to be planted along the Potomac River. On December 10, the trees arrived in Seattle, and on January 6, 1910 arrived in the capital. However, an inspection team for the Department of Agriculture discovered to everyone&#39;s dismay that the trees were infested with insects, roundworms, and plant diseases. To protect American growers, the department concluded that the trees must be destroyed. On January 28, Taft gave permission to destroy the trees, and they were burned. This diplomatic setback resulted in letters from Secretary of State and the representatives to the Japanese ambassador, expressing deep regret of all concerned. Dr. Takamine, meeting the bad news with goodwill, again donated the costs for the trees in 1912, whose number he now increased to 3,020. The seeds for these trees were taken in December 1910 from the famous collection on the bank of the Arakawa River in Adachi Ward, a suburb of Tokyo, and grafted on specially selected understock produced in Itami City in Hyōgo Prefecture.</p><br>
<h2>Map of West Potomac Park</h2><br>
<p>The George Mason Memorial, the Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial, the John Paul Jones Memorial, and The Arts of War and The Arts of Peace sculptures are also in the park.</p><br>
<p>Paradise Island is an island in the Bahamas formerly known as Hog Island. The island, with an area of 685 acre , is located just off the shore of the city of Nassau, which is itself located on the northern edge of the island of New Providence. It is best known for the sprawling resort Atlantis with its extensive water park rides, pools, beach, restaurants, walk-in aquarium and casinos.</p><br>
<p>Paradise Island is connected to the island of New Providence by two bridges that cross Nassau Harbour. The first was built in 1966 by Resorts International, and the second in the late 1990s.</p><br>
<h2>Recent history</h2><br>
<h3>Pre–World War II</h3><br>
<p>Before World War II, the island was known as Hog Island, and was the private estate of the Swedish entrepreneur Axel Wenner-Gren.</p><br>
<h3>Paradise Island Airport</h3><br>
<p>A small airstrip existed on the island before 1999 to serve the resort. Prior to 1989 the airport was a seaplane base with a ramp for aircraft to leave the water. In 1989 a 3,000 ft runway was added to the airport.</p><br>
<p>Both Paradise Island Airlines and Chalk&#39;s International Airlines were the main tenants of the airport.</p><br>
<p>The STOL capable de Havilland Canada DHC-7 Dash 7 turboprop operated by Paradise Island Airlines as well the Grumman G-73 Mallard amphibian aircraft flown by Chalk&#39;s International Airlines both served the airstrip which closed in 1999. The airfield and runway have since been removed and replaced with an 18-hole luxury golf course surrounded by one of the wealthiest neighborhoods on the island. The area goes by the name "Ocean Club" with property prices as high as 40+ million dollars.</p><br>
<h3>Purchase by Huntington Hartford and development as a resort</h3><br>
<p>Huntington Hartford, the A&P supermarket heir, arrived on Hog Island in 1959. Hartford bought Hog Island from Axel Wenner-Gren and changed the name to Paradise Island. He hired the Palm Beach architect John Volk and built the Ocean Club, Cafe Martinique, Hurricane Hole, the Golf Course, among other island landmarks. He also acquired and installed the Cloisters, a 14th-century French Augustinian monastery originally purchased in Montréjeau and dismantled by William Randolph Hearst in the 1920s. He hired Gary Player to be the golf pro and Pancho Gonzales to be the tennis pro. His opening of Paradise Island in 1962 was covered in Newsweek and Time magazines. He hired the staff from Eden Roc at Hotel Du Cap to work off season at the Ocean Club. He had the fireworks for the opening party flown in from the South of France. He had a flag and Paradise Beach was featured on a Bahamian three-dollar notes in 1966 (introduced as a close equivalent to the Bahamian Pound, which was replaced at the rate of $1=£7, so $3=£21).</p><br>
<h3>Development as a gambling resort</h3><br>
<p>Huntington Hartford met James M. Crosby (1927–1986) through Huntington&#39;s bodyguard Sy Alter. Sy Alter met Jim Crosby at the Colony Club in Palm Beach. Huntington Hartford obtained the gambling license for Paradise Island and included Jim Crosby as an extra investor. Jim Crosby and Jack Davis then formed a company, Resorts International, to continue developing Paradise Island. Recognizing the business potential of the Bahamas, they were the first to establish major resort development, and often offered above-average salaries to Bahamanian employees. The two continued to develop Paradise Island. They built the bridge to Nassau and the first large-scale resorts. He subsequently created and funded a successful statewide campaign to pass a referendum legalizing gambling in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Resorts built the first casino, and with no competition for the first year, made over $300 million profit.</p><br>
<p>Paradise Island was purchased in the 1980s for $79 million, then sold to Merv Griffin for $400 million. It was last sold for $125 million to the current owner, Sol Kerzner. The current estimated value of the island is about US$2 billion.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<h2>In film</h2><br>
<p>The Beatles&#39; film Help! was partially filmed on Paradise Island.</p><br>
<p>The James Bond films Thunderball and Casino Royale were partially shot on Paradise Island.</p><br>
<p>Survivor: All-Stars contestants Rob Mariano and Amber Brkich were married on Paradise Island in a two-hour TV special.</p><br>
<p>A larger part of the island is shown in the movie After the Sunset.</p><br>
<p>The Atlantis is prominent in the Mary-Kate and Ashley film Holiday in the Sun.</p><br>
<p>The TV show My Wife and Kids filmed one of their episodes on Paradise Island.</p><br>
<p>The Movie The Other Woman featured a section of Paradise Island&#39;s beach in the early morning</p><br>
<p>The mythology of the superheroine Wonder Woman involves her island home originally being called Paradise Island by her creator William Moulton Marston before being changed to Themyscira.</p><br>
<h2>Footnotes</h2><br>
<h2>Bibliography</h2><br>
<p>Alan A. Block, Masters of Paradise, New Brunswick and London, Transaction Publishers, 1998,</p><br>
<p>The Carquinez Strait is a narrow tidal strait in northern California. It is part of the tidal estuary of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin rivers as they drain into the San Francisco Bay. The strait is 8 miles long and connects Suisun Bay, which receives the waters of the combined rivers, with San Pablo Bay, a northern extension of the San Francisco Bay.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Andrei Sarna-Wojcicki, a geologist emeritus of the U. S. Geological Survey (USGS), has claimed that the Carquinez Strait was likely formed about 640,000 to 700,000 years ago, while much of modern California was emerging from the Ice Age. The present Sacramento Valley and San Joaquin Valley were covered by a huge lake (now extinct), which has been called Lake Corcoran. Initially, this lake drained into the ocean through a valley near present-day Monterey. However, ongoing seismic activity raised the coastal mountains sufficiently to plug this outlet. Concurrently, ice melting off the Sierras raised the water level in Lake Corcoran until the lake began to carve a new outlet to the ocean. At some point, the coastal barrier collapsed between today&#39;s cities of Crockett and Benicia, releasing lake water in a cataclysmic flood.</p><br>
<p>The strait forms part of the border between Solano (to the north) and Contra Costa (to the south) counties, and is approximately 15 mi (25 km) north of Oakland. The cities of Benicia and Vallejo lie on the north side of the strait, while Martinez, Port Costa, and Crockett sit on the southern coast. The Napa River joins the strait, via the short Mare Island Strait, near its entrance into San Pablo Bay. Its watershed covers 62,500 square miles, approximately 40 percent of California&#39;s total surface.</p><br>
<h3>Etymology</h3><br>
<p>The strait is named after the Karkin ("los Carquines" in Spanish), a linguistic division of the Ohlone Native Americans who resided on both sides of the strait.</p><br>
<h2>Installations</h2><br>
<p>The California Maritime Academy is at the western end of the strait on the northern waterfront. The C&H Sugar refinery is located on the southern shore in the small town of Crockett.</p><br>
<h2>Bridges</h2><br>
<p>The strait is crossed by two highway bridges, the Carquinez Bridge on Interstate 80 and the Benicia–Martinez Bridge on Interstate 680. Each highway bridge consists of two spans.</p><br>
<p>Interstate 780 connects the two highways on the northern slope of the strait. State Route 4 connects these highways south of and inland from the strait.</p><br>
<p>A rail bridge just east of the Benicia–Martinez Bridge is used by the Capitol Corridor, California Zephyr, and Coast Starlight trains. A rail ferry, with the ferries Contra Costa and Solano provided service across the strait near the location of the current rail bridge until the rail bridge was built in 1930.</p><br>
<p>Tall pylons carrying power lines cross the strait as well. The Carquinez Strait Powerline Crossing was the world&#39;s first powerline crossing of a large river.</p><br>
<h2>Ship traffic</h2><br>
<p>The channel is navigable and is used for commercial and military shipping. Deep water ship traffic bound for both the Port of Sacramento and the Port of Stockton traverse the strait.</p><br>
<h2>Formation of delta</h2><br>
<p>The narrow gap in the Coast Range that forms the strait has led to the formation of the San Joaquin–Sacramento River Delta, an inverted river delta, upstream of it, a rare geological feature. The strait is too small to allow the passage of huge amounts of floodwaters created during years with heavy rainfall/snowmelt events. Because the Delta area is the first to fill and last to drain in a flood event, silt and soil have more time to drop out of suspension, creating the inverted river delta feature.</p><br>
<h2>Saltwater intrusion</h2><br>
<p>Seawater is more dense than fresh water because of its higher concentration of salts. Under stable conditions, this means that an invisible boundary forms where two such streams meet, as where the fresh water from Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers meet the sea water contained in the San Francisco Bay.</p><br>
<p>By the early 20th Century, farmers in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, who depended on irrigating their fields with fresh water from the two rivers noticed an increase in salinity farther inland than before. It became obvious that fresh water was being pumped out of the Delta faster than it could be replenished by rain and snow during the wet season. Farmers, businessmen and politicians complained that allowing fresh water to flow to the ocean was wasteful. While many solutions were proposed, few appeared practical. A political consensus formed that damming the Carquinez Strait should solve the seawater intrusion problem.</p><br>
<p>In September, 1923, the California Legislature appropriated $10,000 for a salt-water dam survey. The Federal government added a $20,000 contribution through the USA Reclamation Service. Under Reclamation Service rules, another $10,000 needed to be raised from local supporters of the project. The necessary money was raised by March, 1924, and the first of three site surveys was announced.</p><br>
<p>The first survey was at Army Point, near Benecia, which was the preferred site based on preliminary studies. The second choice was Dillon Point, near Southampton Bay, while the third survey was at San Pablo Point, near Richmond. The three surveys were completed by the end of 1924. However, it took four years before completing the decision making process, that officially named Army Point as the future dam site. Still more wrangling in the legislature was required before the "Salt Water Barrier" was officially adopted in May, 1929, and made part of the state water conservation project.</p><br>
<p>On January 24, 1930, with the Great Depression taking hold, President Herbert Hoover cancelled the Carquinez Strait project, saying that it was too costly. All efforts to revive the project failed. Years later, the Central Valley Project attempted to mitigate the effects of seawater intrusion by constructing other dams much farther inland and canals to send fresh water to the San Joaquin Valley.</p><br>
<p>The Goðafoss  is a waterfall in Iceland. It is located in the Bárðardalur district of Northeastern Region at the beginning of the Sprengisandur highland road. The water of the river Skjálfandafljót falls from a height of 12 meters over a width of 30 meters. The river has its origin deep in the Icelandic highland and runs from the highland through the Bárðardalur valley, from Sprengisandur in the Highlands.</p><br>
<p>In the year 999 or 1000 the lawspeaker Þorgeir Ljósvetningagoði made Christianity the official religion of Iceland. According to a modern myth, it is said that upon returning from the Alþingi, Þorgeir threw his statues of the Norse gods into the waterfall. The story of Þorgeir&#39;s role in the adoption of Christianity in Iceland is preserved in Ari Þorgilsson&#39;s Íslendingabók. "Íslendingabók", however, makes no mention of Þorgeir throwing his idols into Goðafoss. A window in Akureyrarkirkja, the Cathedral of Akureyri, illustrates this story.</p><br>
<p>MS Goðafoss, an Icelandic ship named after the waterfall, used to transport both freight and passengers. It was sunk by a German U-Boat in World War II, resulting in great loss of life.</p><br>
<p>Dettifoss is a waterfall in Vatnajökull National Park in Northeast Iceland, and is reputed to be the most powerful waterfall in Europe. The water comes from the nearby Vatnajökull glacier, whose sediment-rich runoff colors the water a greyish white. The superlative of "most powerful" comes from its water flow times its fall distance. The water of the wide Jökulsá á Fjöllum river falls for more than 44 metres, causing a massive, crashing spray.</p><br>
<p>The Norwegian cascade Sarpefossen has a greater average water flow, but only with about half the height of Dettifoss.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Dettifoss is situated on the Jökulsá á Fjöllum river, which flows from the Vatnajökull glacier and collects water from a large area in Northeast Iceland. The falls are 100 m wide and have a drop of 44 m down to the Jökulsárgljúfur canyon. It is the largest waterfall in Iceland in terms of volume discharge, having an average water flow of 193 m/s.</p><br>
<h2>Tourist access</h2><br>
<p>Dettifoss can be reached by a new tarmac road (Route 862, finished in 2011) and an older gravel road (Route 864). On the west bank there are minimal facilities, including a bathroom, and the view on the waterfall is somewhat hindered by the waterfall&#39;s spray. On the east bank there is an information panel maintained by the staff of Vatnajökull National Park (Vatnajökulsþjóðgarður) and a maintained track to the best viewpoints, as well as public restroom.</p><br>
<p>Dettifoss is located on the Diamond Circle, a popular tourist route around Húsavík and Lake Mývatn in North Iceland.</p><br>
<h2>In media</h2><br>
<p>The musical composition Dettifoss (Op.57) by Jón Leifs is inspired by this waterfall.</p><br>
<p>The waterfall is featured in the 2012 science-fiction film Prometheus, standing in as landscape on a primordial Earthlike planet.</p><br>
<p>Herrenchiemsee is a complex of royal buildings on Herreninsel, the largest island in the Chiemsee lake, in southern Bavaria, Germany. Together with the neighbouring isle of Frauenchiemsee and the uninhabited Krautinsel, it forms the municipality of Chiemsee, located about 60 km southeast of Munich.</p><br>
<p>The island, fomerly the site of an Augustinian monastery, was purchased by King Ludwig II of Bavaria in 1873. The king had the premises converted into a residence, known as the Old Palace (Altes Schloss). From 1878 onwards, he had the New Herrenchiemsee Palace (Neues Schloss) erected, based on the model of Versailles. It was the largest, but also the last of his building projects, and remained incomplete. Today maintained by the Bavarian Administration of State-Owned Palaces, Gardens and Lakes, Herrenchiemsee is accessible to the public and a major tourist attraction.</p><br>
<h2>Herrenchiemsee Abbey (Old Palace)</h2><br>
<p>According to tradition, the Benedictine abbey of Herrenchiemsee was established about 765 AD by the Agilolfing duke Tassilo III of Bavaria at the northern tip of the Herreninsel. New findings however indicate an even earlier foundation between 620 and 629 by the Burgundian missionary Saint Eustace of Luxeuil, making it the oldest monastery in the Duchy of Bavaria, established some 70 years earlier than St Peter&#39;s Abbey in Salzburg.</p><br>
<p>In 969 Emperor Otto I consigned the abbey to the Archbishops of Salzburg. Initially a Benedicitne monastery, Herrenchiemsee about 1130 was re-established as a convent of Canons Regulars living under the Rule of St. Augustine. The construction of a new Romanesque basilica, dedicated to Sts Sixtus and Sebastian, was completed in 1158.</p><br>
<p>In 1215, with the approval of Pope Innocent III, the Salzburg archbishop Eberhard von Regensburg made the monastery church the cathedral of a suffragan diocese in its own right, the Bishopric of Chiemsee, including several parishes on the mainland and in Tyrol. The Augustinian convent acted as cathedral chapter, while the auxiliary bishops retained their seat at the Chiemseehof palace in Salzburg. The Herrenchiemsee chapter was headed by provosts who from 1218 also held the position of an archdeacon. They even obtained pontifical vestments and the right of papal count palatines in the 15th century.</p><br>
<p>The present-day Baroque monastery complex was erected between 1642 and 1731. In the course of the German Mediatisation, Herrenchiemsee Abbey was secularised in 1803, the cathedral desecrated in 1807, and the Chiemsee diocese finally dissolved in 1808. The island was then sold; various owners demolished the cathedral, sold the interior, and even turned the abbey into a brewery. King Ludwig II of Bavaria could ward off plans for the complete deforestation of the island by a Württemberg timber trade company, when he acquired Herrenchiemsee in 1873. He had the leftover buildings converted for his private use, the complex that later became known as the "Old Palace", where he stayed surveying the construction of the New Herrenchiemsee Palace.</p><br>
<p>From 10 to 23 August 1948, the representatives of eleven German states of the Western Zones and West Berlin met at the Old Palace as the Verfassungskonvent (Constitutional Convention) to prepare the work for drafting the Basic Law (Grundgesetz) with a view to the founding of the Federal Republic of Germany.</p><br>
<h2>New Palace</h2><br>
<h3>Building history</h3><br>
<p>In 1867 the young king Ludwig II had traveled to France but had to return to Bavaria when he heard of the death of his uncle Otto, without the opportunity to visit the Palace of Versailles. He nevertheless was concerned with the residence of King Louis XIV of France (his namesake) and had plans for a similar retreat drafted by his court architect Georg von Dollmann (1830–1895). A possible building sites was chosen in the Graswang valley near Ettal, the later site of Linderhof Palace.</p><br>
<p>After several revisions, Dollmann&#39;s designs for a former pavilion resembling Grand Trianon or the Château de Marly had grown to a large palace, including a copy of the Versailles Hall of Mirrors. Construction was halted by the aoutbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. In the following years, Ludwig concentrated on the works on Linderhof Palace. He resumed his former plans, when he finally visited Versailles in Summer 1874 and was received with honors by the French government on the occasion of his birthday on August 25. Herrenchiemsee became the designated site for the large New Palace around a central corps de logis, designed by Georg von Dollmann, Christian Jank, and Franz von Seitz.</p><br>
<p>Construction started on 21 May 1878. Ludwig himself regularly supervised the building progress while he stayed at the Old Place nearby. Meant as a homage to the adored King Louis XIV and his divine right, Herrenchiemsee arose as a private, yet vast residence, which resembled Versailles but never was designed to host a thousand-headed royal household. Ludwig only had the opportunity to stay within the Palace for a few days in September 1885, with the rooms richly decorated and the unfinished parts covered by colorful canvasses.</p><br>
<p>After the king&#39;s death by drowning at just 40 in the following year, all construction work discontinued. During the whole period between 1863 and 1886 16,579,674 Marks were spent. Using a 0.2304 troy ounce (7.171 g) 1890 &#39;20 Mark&#39; gold coin as a benchmark, this equates to 190,998 oz of gold, which at October 2013 prices was worth approximately £154,000,000 (US$250,100,000), more than the totalled construction cost of Linderhof and Neuschwanstein together. The expenses brought the royal finances to the verge of bankruptcy, though they had a strong effect as a stimulus package for the local economy.</p><br>
<p>Only a few weeks after Ludwig&#39;s death, the building was opened for the public. After the November Revolution, Crown Prince Rupprecht ceded Herrenchiemsee to the State of Bavaria in 1923.</p><br>
<h3>Design</h3><br>
<p>Unlike the medieval themed Neuschwanstein Castle begun in 1869, the Neo-Baroque New Palace stands as a monument to Ludwig&#39;s admiration of King Louis XIV of France. Its great hall of mirrors&#39; ceiling is painted with 25 tableaux showing Louis XIV at his best.</p><br>
<p>The palace was shaped in a &#39;W&#39; with wings flanking the central edifice. Only 16 of the 70 rooms were on the ground floor. Though it was to have been an equivalent to the Palace of Versailles, only the central portion was built before the king died and construction was discontinued with 50 of the 70 rooms still incomplete. It was never intended to be a perfectly exact replica of the French royal palace and in several places even surpasses it. Like Versailles, the Hall of Mirrors has 17 arches, the Hall of Peace and the Hall of War on either side have three windows each. The window niches at Herrenchiemsee are wider than those at Versailles, making its central façade a few metres wider. The dining room features an elevator table and the world&#39;s largest Meissen porcelain chandelier. Technologically, the building also benefits from nearly two centuries of progress. While the original Versailles palace lacked toilets, water, and central heat, the New Palace has all of these, including a large heated bathtub.</p><br>
<p>Being built on an island, The "Bavarian Versailles" is only accessible by boat, today via a system of small ferries. As a result, and of being unfinished, Herrenchiemsee always remained slightly in the shadow of Neuschwanstein.</p><br>
<h3>Gardens</h3><br>
<p>The formal gardens are filled with fountains, a copy of the Versailles Bassin de Latone, and statues in both the classical style typical of Versailles and the fantastic romanticism favored by King Ludwig. Statues reminiscent of antiquity are found throughout the gardens, overwrought in the grand style of Richard Wagner&#39;s romantic operas.</p><br>
<p>Imbros or İmroz, officially changed to Gökçeada since 29 July 1970, , is the largest island of Turkey and the seat of Gökçeada District of Çanakkale Province. It is located in the Aegean Sea, at the entrance of Saros Bay and is also the westernmost point of Turkey . Imbros has an area of 279 km&sup2; and contains some wooded areas.</p><br>
<p>According to the 2016 census, the island-district of Gökçeada has a population of 8,776. The main industries of Imbros are fishing and tourism. Today the island is predominantly inhabited by settlers from the Turkish mainland that mostly arrived there after 1960, The Greek Imbriot diaspora is thought to number some 15,000.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>In mythology</h3><br>
<p>According to Greek mythology, the palace of Thetis, mother of Achilles, king of Phthia, was situated between Imbros and Samothrace.</p><br>
<p>The stables of the winged horses of Poseidon were said to lie between Imbros and Tenedos.</p><br>
<p>Homer, in The Iliad wrote:</p><br>
<p>Eëtion, a lord of or ruler over the island of Imbros is also mentioned in the Iliad. He buys Priam&#39;s captured son Lycaon and restores him to his father.</p><br>
<p>Homer mention Imbros in the Iliad on other occasions too.</p><br>
<p>Imbros is mentioned in the Homeric Hymn which was dedicated to Apollo.</p><br>
<p>Apollonius of Rhodes also mention Imbros in the first book of his work Argonautica.</p><br>
<h3>In antiquity</h3><br>
<p>For ancient Greeks, the islands of Lemnos and Imbros were sacred to Hephaestus, god of metallurgy, and on ancient coins of Imbros an ithyphallic Hephaestus appears.</p><br>
<p>In classical antiquity, Imbros, like Lemnos, was an Athenian cleruchy, a colony whose settlers retained Athenian citizenship; although since the Imbrians appear on the Athenian tribute lists, there may have been a division with the native population. The original inhabitants of Imbros were Pelasgians, as mentioned by Herodotus in The Histories.</p><br>
<p>Miltiades conquered the island from Persia after the battle of Salamis; the colony was established about 450 BC, during the first Athenian empire, and was retained by Athens (with brief exceptions) for the next six centuries. Thucydides, in his History of the Peloponnesian War describes the colonization of Imbros, and at several places in his narrative mentions the contribution of Imbrians in support of Athens during various military actions. He also recounts the escape of an Athenian squadron to Imbros. In the late 2nd century A.D., the island may have become independent under Septimius Severus.</p><br>
<p>Strabo mention that Cabeiri are most honored in Imbros and Lemnos.</p><br>
<p>Stephanus of Byzantium mention that Imbros was sacred to Cabeiri and Hermes.</p><br>
<p>Imbrian Mysteries were one of the secret religious rites of ancient Greece (similar to the Eleusinian Mysteries). Unfortunately, very little are known about Imbrian Mysteries.</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine era</h3><br>
<p>Prior to the Fall of Constantinople, several larger islands south of Imbros were under Genoese rule, part of territory historically held in the eastern Mediterranean by the independent Maritime Republic of Genoa (1005-1797, predating the East–West schism of 1054) a political development within the Western Roman Empire of city-states such as Venice, Pisa and Amalfi. Defended by the Genoese Navy, one of the largest and most powerful in the Mediterranean, Corsica remained a prominent western Mediterranean territory in the Tyrhennian Sea until Napoleon&#39;s conquest.</p><br>
<p>At the beginning of the 13th century, when the Fourth Crusade and its aftermath temporarily disrupted Venices relations with the Byzantine Empire, Genoa expanded its influence north of Imbros, into the Black Sea and Crimea. An extensive network of mercantile routes and associated ports promoted expansion of Byzantine culture, its goods and services - including scholars and craftsmen schooled in ancient Classical traditions - into Italy, France, Greece, Monaco, Russia, Tunisia, Turkey and Ukraine. The Renaissances renewal of European culture was spawned in part by the rapid influx of exiles from Constantinople at the close of the 15th century. Not all the trade exchanges were as beneficial however: in the debit column can be recorded the 1347 European import of the plague via a Genoese trading post in the Black Sea. High mortality precipitated a weakening in the balance of maritime powers, leading to political strife with Venice and outright war. After a failing alliance with France against Barbary pirates, Genoa became a satellite of Spain; a native son and heir to its vital maritime tradition, Christopher Columbus, sponsored the discovery of the Americas in 1492.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman era</h3><br>
<p>After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 the Byzantine forces in Gökçeada left the island. In the aftermath following the withdrawal, delegates from the island went to İstanbul for an audience with the Ottoman Emperor Mehmed II to discuss terms allowing them to live harmoniously within the Ottoman Empire.</p><br>
<p>After the island became Ottoman soil in 1455 it was administered by Ottomans and Venetians at various times. During this period, and particularly during the reign of Kanuni Sultan Süleyman (1520-1566), the island became a foundation within the Ottoman Empire. Relations between the Ottomans and Venetians occasionally led to hostilities - for example, in June 1717 during the Turkish-Venetian War (1714-1718), a tough but ultimately fairly indecisive naval battle between a Venetian fleet, under Flangini, and an Ottoman fleet was fought near Imbros in the Aegean Sea. Nevertheless, the island&#39;s residents continued to live in relative peace and prosperity until the 20th century.</p><br>
<p>In 1912 during the First Balkan War, the Greek Navy invaded the island. After the signing of the Treaty of Athens in 1913 all of the Aegean islands except Bozcaada and Gökçeada were ceded to Greece.</p><br>
<h3>First World War</h3><br>
<p>In 1915, Imbros played an important role as a staging post for the allied Mediterranean Expeditionary Force, prior to and during the invasion of the Gallipoli peninsula. A field hospital, airfield and administrative and stores buildings were constructed on the island. In particular, many ANZAC (Australian and New Zealand Army Corps) soldiers were based at Imbros during the Gallipoli campaign, and the island was used as an air and naval base by ANZAC, British, and French forces against Turkey. On Imbros was the headquarters of General Ian Hamilton.</p><br>
<p>On 20 January 1918, a naval action (see Battle of Imbros (1918)) took place in the Aegean near the island when an Ottoman squadron engaged a flotilla of the British Royal Navy.</p><br>
<p>Patrick Shaw-Stewart, wrote his famous poem Achilles in the Trench, one of the best-known war poems of the First World War, while he was at the Imbros. He seemed to enjoy speaking ancient Greek to the inhabitants of Imbros, at one of his letters he wrote: "here I am, living in a Greek village and talking the language of Demosthenes to the inhabitants (who are really quite clever at taking my meaning)."</p><br>
<h3>Between Turkey and Greece</h3><br>
<p>Between November 1912 and September 1923, Imbros, together with Tenedos, were under the administration of the Greek navy. Both islands were overwhelmingly ethnically Greek, and in the case of Imbros the population was entirely Greek.</p><br>
<p>Negotiations to end the Balkan war started in December 1912 in London and the issue of the Aegean islands was one persistent problem. The issue divided the great powers with Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy supporting the Ottoman position for return of all the Aegean islands and Britain and France supporting the Greek position for Greek control of all the Aegean islands. With Italy controlling key islands in the region, major power negotiations deadlocked in London and later in Bucharest. Romania threatened military action with the Greeks against the Ottomans in order to force negotiations in Athens in November 1913. Eventually, Greece and Great Britain pressured the Germans to support an agreement where the Ottomans would retain Tenedos, Kastelorizo and Imbros and the Greeks would control the other Aegean islands. The Greeks accepted the plan while the Ottoman Empire rejected the ceding of the other Aegean islands. This agreement would not hold, but the outbreak of World War I and the Turkish War of Independence put the issue to the side.</p><br>
<p>During World War I Gallipoli Campaign, the British used the island as a supply base and built a 600m. long airstrip for military operations.</p><br>
<p>In 1920, the Treaty of Sèvres with the defeated Ottoman Empire granted the island to Greece. The Ottoman government, which signed but did not ratify the treaty, was overthrown by the new Turkish nationalist Government of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, based in Ankara. After the Greco-Turkish War ended in Greek defeat in Anatolia, and the fall of Lloyd George and his Middle Eastern policies, the western powers agreed to the Treaty of Lausanne with the new Turkish Republic, in 1923. This treaty made the island part of Turkey; but it guaranteed a special autonomous administrative status for Imbros and Tenedos to accommodate the Greeks, and excluded them from the population exchange that took place between Greece and Turkey, due to their presence there as a majority. Article 14 of the treaty provided specific guarantees safeguarding the rights of minorities in both the nations.</p><br>
<p>However shortly after the legislation of "Civil Law" on 26 June 1927 (Mahalli Idareler Kanunu), the rights accorded to the Greek population of Imbros and Tenedos were revoked, in violation of the Lausanne Treaty. Thus, the island was demoted from an administrative district to a sub-district which resulted that the island was to be stripped of its local tribunals. Moreover, the members of the local council were obliged to have adequate knowledge of the Turkish language, which meant that the vast majority of the islanders were excluded. Furthermore, according to this law, the Turkish government retained the right to dissolve this council and in certain circumstances, to introduce police force and other officials consisted by non-islanders. This law also violated the educational rights of the local community and imposed an educational system similar to that followed by ordinary Turkish schools.</p><br>
<p>Massive scale persecution against the local Greek element started in 1961, as part of the Eritme Programmi operation that aimed at the elimination of Greek education and the enforcement of economic, psychological pressure and violence. Under these conditions the Turkish government approved the appropriation of the 90% of the cultivated areas of the island and the settlement of additional 6,000 ethnic Turks from mainland Turkey. The Turkish Government, also, closed the Greek schools on the island and classified it as "supervised zone", which meant that expatriates could not visit the island and their homes without special admission. Greeks on the island were also targeted by the construction of an open prison on the island that included inmates convicted of rape and murder, who were then allowed to roam freely on the island and harass locals. Some are said to have committed the same crimes before the prison was closed down in 1992. Additional population settlements from Anatolia occurred in 1973, 1984 and 2000. The state provided special credit opportunities and agricultural aid in kind to those who would decide to settle in the island. New settlements were created and existing settlements were renamed with Turkish names. The island itself was officially renamed to Gökçeada in 1970. On the other hand, the indigenous Greek population being deprived of its means of production and facing hostile behaviour from the government and the newly arrived settlers, left its native land. The peak of this exodus was in</p><br>
<p>1974 during the Cyprus crisis. By 2000, only 400 Greeks remained, while the Turks were around 8000., only 318 Greeks remained on the island, whereas the number of Turks increased to 8,344. A diaspora of approximately 15,000 Imbriots based mostly in Greece maintains strong links to the island.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>Imbros is mainly of volcanic origin and the highest mountain of the island İlyas Dağ, is an extinct cone-shaped stratovolcano.</p><br>
<h3>Earthquakes</h3><br>
<p>Imbros is situated directly south of the North Anatolian Fault, lying within the Anatolian Plate very close to the boundary between the Aegaean Sea and Eurasian Plates. This fault zone, which runs from northeastern Anatolia to the northern Aegean Sea, has been responsible for several deadly earthquakes, including in Istanbul, Izmit and Imbros among others, and is a major threat to the island. On 24 May 2014, Imbros was shaken by a strong earthquake with a magnitude of 6.9 MW. 30 people were injured and numerous old houses were damaged, some of them irreparably. A major earthquake is expected to occur along this fault line in the near future. Minor noticeable earthquakes are common.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The island has a Mediterranean climate with warm and dry summers, and wet and cool winters. Although summer is the driest season, some rainfall does occur in summer. Snow and ground frost are not uncommon in winter.</p><br>
<h3>Town</h3><br>
<h3>Villages</h3><br>
<p>Most of the settlements on Imbros were given Turkish names in 1926.</p><br>
<h3>Cittaslow</h3><br>
<p>Gökçeada is one of the eight "cittaslows" of Turkey and is the second in being accepted as one, after Seferihisar.</p><br>
<h3>Places to see</h3><br>
<p>Aydıncık/Kefaloz (Kefalos) beach: Best location for windsurfing</p><br>
<p>Kapıkaya (Stenos) beach:</p><br>
<p>&#39;Kaşkaval peninsula / (Kaskaval): Scuba diving</p><br>
<p>Kuzulimanı (Haghios Kyrikas): Ferryport with 24-hour ferries to Gelibolu–Kabatepe port and Çanakkale port.</p><br>
<p>Mavikoy/Bluebay: The first national underwater park in Turkey. Scuba diving allowed for recreational purposes.</p><br>
<p>Marmaros beach: Also has a small waterfall.</p><br>
<p>Pınarbaşı (Spilya) beach: Longest (and most sandy) beach on the island.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<h3>Marine</h3><br>
<p>Water from the Black and Marmara Seas mixing with the warmer saltier water of the Aegean Sea supports a rich marine ecosystem.</p><br>
<h3>Wind</h3><br>
<p>Onshore and offshore wind power may be developed in future.</p><br>
<h3>Issues</h3><br>
<p>Environmental issues include litter.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<h3>Fishing</h3><br>
<p>Swordfish are caught in season.</p><br>
<h3>Agriculture</h3><br>
<p>Goats are raised.</p><br>
<h3>Tourism</h3><br>
<p>Most tourists visit in summer.</p><br>
<h3>Transport</h3><br>
<p>Former scheduled flights from the airport are not currently flying.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<h3>Greek population</h3><br>
<p>The island was primarily inhabited by ethnic Greeks from ancient times through to approximately the 1960s. Data dating from 1922 taken under Greek rule and 1927 data taken under Turkish rule showed a strong majority of Greek inhabitants on Imbros, and the Greek Orthodox Church had a strong presence on the island.</p><br>
<p>Article 14 of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) exempted Imbros and Tenedos from the large-scale population exchange that took place between Greece and Turkey, and required Turkey to accommodate the local Greek majority and their rights:</p><br>
<p>The islands of Imbros and Tenedos, remaining under Turkish sovereignty, shall enjoy a special administrative organisation composed of local elements and furnishing every guarantee for the native non-Moslem population insofar as concerns local administration and the protection of persons and property. The maintenance of order will be assured therein by a police force recruited from amongst the local population by the local administration above provided for and placed under its orders.</p><br>
<p>However, the treaty provisions relating to administrative autonomy for Imbros and protections of minority populations was never implemented by the Turkish government." The result was a significant decline in the Greek population of the island.</p><br>
<p>A recent development whose long-term significance remains to be evaluated was the three-day visit of Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew, a native of Imbros, (11–13 August 2011) in the course of which he met Stavros Lambrinidis, the foreign minister of Greece, apparently the first minister in office to visit the island, not officially though, since the Treaty of Lausanne (sources:SOP;Oecumenisme Informations no.420, December 2011).</p><br>
<h3>Human rights</h3><br>
<p>The following grievances apply particularly to Imbros:</p><br>
<p>In 1923, Turkey dismissed the elected government of the island, and installed mainlanders. 1,500 Imbriots who had taken refuge from the Turkish War of Independence on Lemnos and in Thessalonica were denied the right to return, as undesirables and their property was confiscated.</p><br>
<p>In 1927, the system of local administration on Imbros was abolished, and the Greek schools closed. In 1952-3, the Greek Imbriots were permitted to build new ones, closed again in 1964.</p><br>
<p>In 1943, Turkey arrested the Metropolitan of Imbros and Tenedos with other Orthodox clerics. They also confiscated the lands on Imbros belonging to the monasteries of Great Lavra and Koutloumousiou on Mount Athos, expelled the tenants, and installed settlers; when the Mayor of Imbros and four village elders protested, they were arrested and sent to the mainland.</p><br>
<p>Between 1964 and 1984, almost all the usable land on Imbros had been expropriated, for inadequate compensation, for an army camp, a minimum-security prison, reforestation projects, a dam project, and a national park.</p><br>
<p>Nicholas Palaiopoulos, a town councilor, was arrested and imprisoned in 1962 for complaining to the Greek Ambassador on the latter&#39;s visit to Imbros; he, together with the Mayor of Imbros and 20 others, was imprisoned again in 1974.</p><br>
<p>The old Cathedral at Kastro (Kaleköy) was desecrated on the night of the Turkish landing on Cyprus in 1974; the present Cathedral was looted in March 1993; criminal activities have included a number of rapes and murders, officially blamed on convicts and soldiers, but none of them has been solved.</p><br>
<p>Through the latter half of the 20th century, the Turkish government implemented a program to settle mainland Turks on Imbros and Tenedos (Bozcaada).</p><br>
<p>On 28 October 2010, the Greek cemetery of the island was desecrated, an action condemned by the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.</p><br>
<p>All of these events have led to the Greeks emigrating from both islands. According to 1927 Population Census, Imbros population was 6,555 Greeks, and 157 Turks; in contrast at the 2000 Population Census the Greeks had become a minority on the island. Most of the former Greeks of Imbros and Tenedos are in diaspora in Greece, the United States, and Australia.</p><br>
<p>In September 2015, the Greek school on Imbros was reopened after 51 years., there are 14 students, only one of which was born on the island, the rest from diaspora families that returned to the island. In addition, a member of the Greek community is serving on the Imbros municipal police force.</p><br>
<h3>Population change in Imbros</h3><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>A Turkish documentary of 2013, "Rüzgarlar" (Winds), by Selim Evci, is focused on the discriminative government policies of the 1960s against the Greek population.</p><br>
<p>Another Turkish film My Grandfather&#39;s People, is based on the population exchange between Turkey and Greece in 1923. Among other places, some scenes were filmed in Imbros.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people from Imbros</h2><br>
<p>Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople, current spiritual leader of the Eastern Orthodox Church.</p><br>
<p>Michael Critobulus 15th century politician and historian.</p><br>
<p>Archbishop Iakovos of America, Primate of the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of North and South America (1959-1996).</p><br>
<p>Lake Vida is a hypersaline lake in Victoria Valley, the northernmost of the large McMurdo Dry Valleys, on the continent of Antarctica. It is isolated under year-round ice cover, and is considerably more saline than seawater. It came to public attention in 2002 when microbes frozen in its ice cover for more than 2,800 years were successfully thawed and reanimated.</p><br>
<h2>Introduction</h2><br>
<p>Lake Vida is one of the largest lakes in the McMurdo Dry Valley region and is a closed-basin endorheic lake. The permanent surface ice on the lake is the thickest non-glacial ice on earth, reaching a depth of at least 21 m. The ice at depth is saturated with brine that is seven times as saline as seawater. The high salinity allows the brine to remain liquid at an average yearly water temperature of -13 &deg;C. The ice cap has sealed the saline brine from external air and water for thousands of years creating a time capsule for ancient DNA. This combination of lake features make Lake Vida a unique lacustrine ecosystem on Earth.</p><br>
<p>The lake gained widespread recognition in December 2002 when a research team, led by the University of Illinois at Chicagos Peter Doran, announced the discovery of 2,800‑year‑old halophile microbes (primarily filamentous cyanobacteria) preserved in ice layer core samples drilled in 1996. The microbes reanimated upon thawing, grew and reproduced. Due to this discovery and the freezing mechanisms forming Lake Vidas ice-seal, Lake Vida is now noted as a location for research into Earth&#39;s climate and life under extreme conditions, specifically the fauna that could have existed on Mars. The unmanned Lake Vida Meteorological Station monitors climate conditions around the lake year round for such scientific study.</p><br>
<p>A 2010 field campaign, funded by the National Science Foundation through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, to investigate the microbiology and geochemistry of Lake Vida. Led by Peter Doran and Alison Murray from Nevada&#39;s Desert Research Institute, the expedition recovered ice cores, brine and sediment samples from the lake using clean drilling procedures to avoid contamination.</p><br>
<p>The lake itself has no permanent settlements or infrastructure. The nearby Lake Vida Meteorological Station is unmanned, sending meteorological data to McMurdo Dry Valleys Long Term Ecological Research organization. The closest human settlement is Scott Base McMurdo approximately 125 km away. In addition to the unmanned observation station, a 5-day emergency supply of food for 6 people is cached 600 m from the southwestern shore. Research teams establish temporary camps from which research activities are conducted on short term basis in the summer months.</p><br>
<h2>Composition</h2><br>
<p>Lake Vida does not possess many factors attributed to the existence of life formations. Lake Vida contains high levels of nitrous oxide (N2O) and also molecular hydrogen (H2). The chemicals are believed to be released from chemical reactions between the brine and underlying sediments. The molecular hydrogen may be crucial as an energy source for life in the lake and aids in justifying the presence of life in an oxygen-deprived environment.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrology</h2><br>
<p>Lake Vida has at least three named inflows: Victoria River, Kite Stream, and Dune Creek. Victoria River passes through the Vida Basin into Victoria Valley, Victoria Land as ephemeral glacial meltwater from the Upper Victoria Glacier, draining from Victoria Upper Lake, 7 km to the northwest, to finally drain into the west end of Lake Vida. Kite Stream is also located in the Vida Basin and flows as ephemeral glacial meltwater west from the Victoria Lower Glacier into the east end of Lake Vida. The United States Geological Survey&#39;s Atlas of Antarctic Research maps up to nine Lake Vida inflows or outflows including Victoria River and Kite Stream. The inflows and outflows are normally dry due to average annual temperatures down to -30 &deg;C at Lake Vida. Meltwater flows for a few weeks in the summer months when temperatures rise sufficiently for the nearby glaciers to melt. The McMurdo Dry Valleys are classified as extreme desert. The area receives less than 10 cm of snow precipitation a year, in the form of snow that builds the nearby glaciers.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<h3>Main geological features</h3><br>
<p>In the vicinity of Lake Vida, a variety of geological features are noted, the most significant being glaciers, lakes, valleys, ridges, and summits. There are approximately 25 named glaciers within a 25 km radius with the nearest being Upper Victoria Glacier, Packard Glacier, Clark Glacier, and Clio Glacier. In the same radius, there are approximately 14 named ridges with the nearest being Robertsons Ridge, Helios Ridge, and Nottage Ridge. In addition to Victoria Valley, there are 16 named valleys with the nearest being Sanford Valley, Barwick Valley and McKelvey Valley. In addition to Upper Victoria Lake that feeds Lake Vida with meltwater, there are approximately 11 other lakes, the nearest being Lake Thomas. The summits around Lake Vida are as follows, Mautino Peak, Mount Saga, Mount Allen, Mount Theseus, Mount Cerberus, Mount Insel, Nickell Peak, and Sponsors Peak.</p><br>
<h3>Other geological features</h3><br>
<p>Other more minor features include benches, cliffs, gaps, and streams. The Victoria Valley dunefield, an approximately 1.5 km belt which is about 3.1 km long, lies to the east of Lake Vida. It is an important site for research into the landforms and processes of perennial niveo-aeolian environments.</p><br>
<h2>Natural history</h2><br>
<p>Kite stream is named after a researcher, James Kite, who found numerous meteorites in the area (1977–1978).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Lake Vida lies north of Mount Cerberus in the Victoria Valley of Victoria Land. Named by the Victoria University of Wellington Antarctic Expedition (1958–59) after Vida (Vaida), a sledge dog of the Nimrod Expedition, 1910-13. Lake Vida was originally thought to be frozen to the lakebed.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Lake Vida has no noted economic features. Any commercial benefits from the scientific expeditions to Lake Vida are indirect.</p><br>
<h2>Life</h2><br>
<p>Scientists have found life in an Antarctic Lake Vida that was sealed off from the outside world by a thick sheet of ice several thousands of years ago. The discovery of the ecosystem pushes the boundaries of what life can endure, and may inform the search for alien microbes on other planets, such as Mars, or on icy moons, for instance, Jupiter&#39;s moon Europa.</p><br>
<h2>Species lists</h2><br>
<p>The following eukaryote species have been catalogued within 1 degree of Lake Vida:</p><br>
<p>Kingdom Animalia</p><br>
<p>Phylum Arthropoda: Alloptes stercorarii (arachnida, mite), Tydeus setsukoae (arachnida, mite)</p><br>
<p>Phylum Rotifera: Philodina spp.</p><br>
<p>Phylum Tardigrada: Unknown sp.</p><br>
<p>Kingdom Fungi</p><br>
<p>Division Ascomycota: Lepraria sp.</p><br>
<p>Kingdom Plantae</p><br>
<p>Division Bryophyta: Bryum argenteum, Bryum pseudotriquetrum, Bryum subrotundifolium, Ceratodon purpureus, Didymodon gelidus, Grimmia antarctici, Grimmia sp., Pottia heimii, Sarconeurum glaciale,</p><br>
<p>Division Marchantiophyta: Cephaloziella exiliflora</p><br>
<p>Kingdom Protista</p><br>
<p>Phylum Ciliophora: Chilodonella sp., Epistylis sp., Euplotes sp., Halteria sp., Homalozoon sp., Nassula sp., Oxytricha sp., Pleuronema sp., Podophrya sp., Pyxidium sp., Saprophilus sp., Spathidium sp., Sphaerophrya sp., Vorticella sp.</p><br>
<p>Phylum Sarcomastigophora: Acanthocystis sp., Actinophyrys sp.,</p><br>
<p>Phylum Euglenozoa: Bodo sp. (kinetoplastid)</p><br>
<p>The Jebel Akhar, Jabal Akhdar or Al Jabal Al Akhdar , is part of the Al Hajar Mountains range in Ad Dakhiliyah Governorate of Oman. It extends about 300 km  northwest to southeast, between 50–100 km  inland from the Gulf of Oman coast, and is one of Oman’s most spectacular areas. The highest point, Jebel Shams , is around 3,000 metres  high.</p><br>
<p>This mostly limestone mountain is the highest point in Oman and the whole of eastern Arabia. Jebel Akhdar forms the central section of the Al Hajar Mountains range, and is located around 150 km (93 mi) from Muscat. The range is mostly desert, but at higher altitudes receives around 300 mm (12 in) of precipitation annually — moist enough to allow the growth of shrubs and trees and support agriculture. It is this that gives the mountains their "green" name.</p><br>
<p>An old stronghold on the inland side of the mountain is Birkat al-Mawz, or Pool of the Plantains, with a layout similar to the nearby Jabrin palace. "Poised across the yawning mouth of a great pass into the mountains, Birkat al-Mawz was one of the fortresses of the Bani Riyam tribe which controlled the mountain heartland. Collapsing into ruin until recently, the mud-brick fortress and its painted ceilings are now well on the way to restoration."</p><br>
<p>The area is about a 45-minute drive from Nizwa and is known for its traditional rose water extraction and agricultural products including pomegranates, walnuts, apricots, black grapes and peaches. It is also the site of honey bee breeding for much of Oman. Agricultural production is improved by the use of Aflaj irrigation channels and their associated terraces system devised by the local farmers, who have lived on this mountain for hundreds of years. The Jebel is mostly inhabited by the ancient Arab tribe Bani Riyam (al Riyamy). Most descendants of the tribe are now in the four nearby villages, including Nizwa, Izki and Ibra.</p><br>
<p>Between 1954 and 1959, the area became a site of the Jebel Akhdar War, a conflict between Omani forces loyal to the sultan of Oman (aided by British soldiers, including the Special Air Service) and Saudi Arabian-backed rebel forces of the inland Imamate of Oman.</p><br>
<p>In August 2011, Sultan Qaboos designated Jebel Akhdar a nature reserve in a bid to conserve its unique yet fragile biodiversity. A decree issued by Sultan Qaboos established the ‘Jebel Akhdar Sanctuary for Natural Sceneries.’ The Minister of Environment and Climate Affairs has authority to draft guidelines regulating access and developmental activity within the reserve.</p><br>
<p>Since 2011, the mountain has featured as the principal climb in the Tour of Oman road bicycle race. In the area, several important rock art sites, with figures dating back to 6000 years ago, have been discovered and studied.</p><br>
<p>The Presidential Range of the Green Mountains is a mountain range in the U.S. state of Vermont. Its major peaks are named for several U.S. presidents of the period from the Civil War through World War I.</p><br>
<p>From north to south (which corresponds to the chronological order of the corresponding presidencies), this Presidential Range includes</p><br>
<p>* Lincoln Mountain (named after Abraham Lincoln)</p><br>
<p>** Mount Abraham, 4005 feet</p><br>
<p>** Lincoln Peak, 3975 feet</p><br>
<p>** Nancy Hanks Peak, 3872 feet (named after Lincoln&#39;s mother, Nancy Hanks)</p><br>
<p>* Mount Grant, 3661 ft. (after Ulysses S. Grant)</p><br>
<p>* Mount Cleveland, 3500 ft. (after Grover Cleveland)</p><br>
<p>* Mount Roosevelt, 3580 ft. (after Theodore Roosevelt)</p><br>
<p>* Mount Wilson, 3756 ft. (after Woodrow Wilson)</p><br>
<p>Mount Marcy  is the highest point in New York State, with an elevation of 5,343 ft. It is located in the Town of Keene in Essex County. The mountain is in the heart of the Adirondack High Peaks Region of the High Peaks Wilderness Area. Its stature and expansive views make it a popular destination for hikers, who crowd its summit in the summer months.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tear of the Clouds, at the col between Mt. Marcy and Mt. Skylight, is often cited as the highest source of the Hudson River, via Feldspar Brook and the Opalescent River, even though the main stem of the Opalescent River has as its source a higher point two miles north of Lake of the Clouds, and that stem is a mile longer than Feldspar Brook.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The mountain is named after Gov. William L. Marcy, the 19th-century Governor of New York, who authorized the environmental survey that explored the area. Its first recorded ascent was on August 5, 1837, by a large party led by Ebenezer Emmons looking for the source of the East Fork of the Hudson River. Today the summit may be reached by multiple trails; though long by any route, a round-trip may be made in a day.</p><br>
<p>Vice President (and former governor) Theodore Roosevelt was at his hunting camp, Tahawus, on September 14, 1901, after summiting Marcy, when he was informed that President William McKinley, who had been shot a week earlier, had taken a serious turn for the worse.</p><br>
<p>Roosevelt and his party hiked ten miles (16 km) down the southwest face of the mountain to Long Lake, New York where he hired a stage coach to take him to the closest train station at North Creek. At some point along the route, Roosevelt learned that McKinley had died, and so Roosevelt took the train to Buffalo to get sworn in as President. The route from Long Lake to North Creek has been designated as the Roosevelt-Marcy Trail.</p><br>
<h2>Routes</h2><br>
<p>Mount Marcy is one of the High Peaks of the Adirondack Mountains. The majority of the mountain is forested, although the final few hundred feet is above the tree line. The peak is dominated by rocky outcrops, lichens, and alpine shrubs. There are two plaques at the top commemorating the centennial of the climb as well as the mountain summit itself.</p><br>
<p>The shortest and most frequently used route up the mountain is from the northwest, the Van Hoevenberg Trail, which starts at the Adirondak Loj near Heart Lake. From there it is 7.4 miles (11.2 km) to the summit, a lengthy (22.4 km) roundtrip which can nevertheless be done in a day. A large section of the trail is suitable for alpine skiing and snowboarding.</p><br>
<p>The summit via the Johns Brook Trail from the Garden parking north of the mountain in Keene Valley is an 18-mile (28.8 km) round trip, which may be broken at Johns Brook Lodge.</p><br>
<p>A lengthier southern approach can be made from either of the two major trailheads for the southern High Peaks, Upper Works or Elk Lake.</p><br>
<p>Visibility on the summit occasionally affords very distant views of most of the Montregian Hills volcano chain in Quebec&#39;s St Lawrence valley as far north as Mont St Hillaire. Views of Burlington and Lake Champlain adorn the surrounding Green Mountains with visibility extending far beyond the Southern Adirondacks as well.</p><br>
<p>The Rocky Flats Plant was a former nuclear weapons production facility in the western United States, near Denver, Colorado. Operated from 1952 to 1992, it was under the control of the USA Atomic Energy Commission , succeeded by the Department of Energy  in 1977.</p><br>
<p>Weapons production was temporarily halted in 1989 after EPA and FBI agents raided the facility. Operators of the plant later pleaded guilty to criminal violations of environmental law. At the time, the fine was one of the largest penalties ever in an environmental law case.</p><br>
<p>Cleanup began in the early 1990s, and the site achieved regulatory closure in 2006. The cleanup effort decommissioned and demolished over 800 structures; removed over 21 tons of weapons-grade material; removed over 1.3 million cubic meters of waste; and, treated more than 16 million gallons of water. Four groundwater treatment systems were also constructed. Today, the Rocky Flats Plant is gone. The site of the former facility consists of two distinct areas: (1) the "Central Operable Unit" (including the former industrial area), which remains off-limits to the public as a CERCLA "Superfund" site, owned and managed by the USA Department of Energy, and (2) the Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge, owned and managed by the USA Fish and Wildlife Service. The Refuge (also known as the "Peripheral Operable Unit") was determined to be suitable for unrestricted use. Every five years, the USA Department of Energy, USA Environmental Protection Agency, and Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment review environmental data and other information to assess whether the remedy is functioning as intended. The latest Five-Year Review for the site, released in August 2017, concluded the site remedy is protective of human health and the environment.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>1950s</h3><br>
<p>Following World War II, the United States increased production of nuclear weapons. The AEC chose the Dow Chemical Company to manage the bomb production facility. A 4 square miles site about 15 mi northwest of Denver on a windy plateau called Rocky Flats was chosen for the facility. On July 10, 1951, ground was broken on the first building in the facility. Contemporary news reports stated that the site would not be used to produce nuclear bombs.</p><br>
<p>In 1953, the plant began production of bomb components, manufacturing plutonium triggers, or "pits", which were used at the Pantex plant in Amarillo, Texas to assemble nuclear weapons. By 1957, the plant had expanded to 27 buildings.</p><br>
<p>On September 11, 1957, a plutonium fire occurred in one of the gloveboxes used to handle radioactive materials, igniting the combustible rubber gloves and plexiglas windows of the box. Metallic plutonium is a fire hazard and pyrophoric; under the right conditions it may ignite in air at room temperature. The accident resulted in the contamination of Building 771, the release of plutonium into the atmosphere, and caused $818,600 in damage. An incinerator for plutonium-contaminated waste was installed in Building 771 in 1958.</p><br>
<p>Barrels of radioactive waste were found to be leaking into an open field in 1959. This was not made publicly known until 1970 when wind-borne particles were detected in Denver.</p><br>
<h3>1960s</h3><br>
<p>Throughout the 1960s, the plant continued to enlarge and add buildings. The 1960s also brought more contamination to the site. In 1967, 3,500 barrels of plutonium-contaminated lubricants and solvents were stored on Pad 903. A large number of them were found to be leaking, and low-level contaminated soil was becoming wind-borne from this area. This pad was covered with gravel and paved over with asphalt in 1969.</p><br>
<p>May 11, 1969 saw a major fire in a glovebox in Building 776/777. This was the costliest industrial accident ever to occur in the United States up to that time. Cleanup from the accident took two years and led to safety upgrades on the site, including fire sprinkler systems and firewalls.</p><br>
<h3>1970s</h3><br>
<p>In order to reduce the danger of public contamination and to create a security area around the plant following protests, the United States Congress authorized the purchase of a 4,600 acre buffer zone around the plant in 1972. In 1973, nearby Walnut Creek and the Great Western Reservoir were found to have elevated tritium levels. The tritium was determined to have been released from contaminated materials shipped to Rocky Flats from the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory. Discovery of the contamination by the Colorado Department of Health led to investigations by the AEC and United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). As a result of the investigation, several mitigation efforts were put in place to prevent further contamination. Some of the elements included channeling of wastewater runoff to three dams for testing before release into the water system and construction of a reverse osmosis facility to clean up wastewater.</p><br>
<p>The next year, elevated plutonium levels were found in the topsoil near the now covered Pad 903. An additional 4,500 acres (18 km²) of buffer zone were purchased.</p><br>
<p>1975 saw Rockwell International replacing Dow Chemical as the contractor for the site. This year also saw local landowners suing for property contamination caused by the plant.</p><br>
<p>In 1978, 60 protesters belonging to the Rocky Flats Truth Force, or Satyagraha Affinity Group, based in Boulder, Colorado, were arrested for trespassing at Rocky Flats, and were brought to trial before Judge Kim Goldberger. Dr. John Candler Cobb, Professor of Preventive Medicine at the University of Colorado Medical Center, testified that the most significant danger of radioactive contamination came from the 1967 incident in which oil barrels containing plutonium leaked 5,000 USgal of oil into sand under the barrels, which was then blown by strong winds as far away as Denver. Radioactivity of the sand at the spill site was measured at 30 million disintegrations per minute per gram (about 220 ppm plutonium in the sand by weight), 15 million times higher than the state standard of two disintegrations per minute.</p><br>
<p>Dr. Carl Johnson, Jefferson County health director from 1973 to 1981, directed numerous studies on contamination levels and health risks the plant posed to public health. Based on his conclusions, Johnson opposed housing development near Rocky Flats. He was fired. Later studies confirmed many of his findings.</p><br>
<p>On April 28, 1979, a few weeks after the Three Mile Island accident, a crowd of close to 15,000 protesters assembled at a nearby site. Singers Jackson Browne and Bonnie Raitt took the stage along with various speakers. The following day, 286 protesters including Daniel Ellsberg were arrested for civil disobedience/trespassing on the Rocky Flats facility.</p><br>
<h3>1980s</h3><br>
<p>Dark Circle is a 1982 American documentary film that focuses on the Rocky Flats Plant and its plutonium contamination of the area&#39;s environment. The film won the Grand Prize for documentary at the Sundance Film Festival and received a national Emmy Award for "Outstanding individual achievement in news and documentary".</p><br>
<p>Rocky Flats became a focus of protest by peace activists throughout the 1980s. In 1983, a demonstration was organized that brought together 17,000 people who joined hands in an encirclement around the 17 mi perimeter of the plant.</p><br>
<p>A perimeter security zone was installed around the facility in 1983 and was upgraded with remote detection abilities in 1985. Also in 1983, the first radioactive waste was processed through the aqueous recovery system, creating a plutonium button.</p><br>
<p>A celebration of 250,000 continuous safe hours by the employees at Rocky Flats happened in 1985. The same year, Rockwell received Industrial Research Magazine&#39;s IR-100 award for a process to remove actinide contamination from wastewater at the plant. The next year, the site received a National Safety Council Award of Honor for outstanding safety performance.</p><br>
<p>On August 10, 1987, 320 demonstrators were arrested after they tried to force a one-day shutdown of the Rocky Flats nuclear weapons plant.</p><br>
<p>In 1988, a Department of Energy (DOE) safety evaluation resulted in a report that was critical of safety measures at the plant. The EPA fined the plant for polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) leaks from a transformer. A solid waste form, called pondcrete, was found not to have cured properly and was leaking from containers. A boxcar of transuranic waste from the site was refused entry into Idaho and returned to the plant. Plans to potentially close the plant were released.</p><br>
<p>In 1989 an employee left a faucet running, resulting in chromic acid being released into the sanitary water system. The Colorado Department of Health and the EPA both posted full-time personnel at the plant to monitor safety. Plutonium production was suspended due to safety violations.</p><br>
<p>In August 1989, an estimated 3,500 people turned out for a demonstration at Rocky Flats.</p><br>
<h4>Investigation by FBI and EPA</h4><br>
<p>Insiders at the plant started to covertly inform the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) about the unsafe conditions in 1987. Late that year the FBI commenced clandestine flights of light aircraft over the area and noticed that the incinerator was apparently being used late into the night. After several months of collecting evidence both from workers and via direct measurement, the FBI informed the DOE on June 6, 1989 that they wanted to meet to discuss a potential terrorist threat.</p><br>
<p>Dubbed "Operation Desert Glow", the raid, sponsored by the United States Department of Justice (DOJ), began at 9 a.m. on June 6, 1989. After the FBI got past the DOEs heavily armed, authorized to shoot-to-kill security—whose armament included surface-to-air missiles—they served the search warrant to Dominick Sanchini, Rockwell Internationals manager of Rocky Flats. (Coincidentally, Sanchini died the next year in Boulder of cancer.). The FBI discovered numerous violations of federal anti-pollution laws, including limited contamination of water and soil. In 1992, Rockwell International was charged with environmental crimes including violations of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), and the Clean Water Act. Rockwell pleaded guilty and paid an $18.5 million fine. This was the largest fine for an environmental crime to that date.</p><br>
<p>After the June 1989 FBI raid, federal authorities used the subsequent grand jury investigation to gather evidence of wrongdoing and then sealed the record. In October 2006, DOE announced completion of the Rocky Flats cleanup without this information being available.</p><br>
<p>The FBI raid led to the formation of Colorado&#39;s first special grand jury in 1989, the juried testimony of 110 witnesses, reviews of 2,000 exhibits, and ultimately a 1992 plea agreement in which Rockwell admitted to 10 federal environmental crimes and agreed to pay $18.5 million in fines out of its own funds. This amount was less than the company had been paid in bonuses for running the plant as determined by the Government Accounting Office (GAO), and yet was also by far the highest hazardous-waste fine ever; four times larger than the previous record. Due to indemnification of nuclear contractors, without some form of settlement being arrived at between the USA Justice Department and Rockwell, the cost of paying any civil penalties would ultimately have been borne by USA taxpayers. While any criminal penalties allotted to Rockwell would not have been covered, for its part Rockwell claimed that the Department of Energy had specifically exempted them from most environmental laws, including hazardous waste.</p><br>
<p>Regardless, and as forewarned by the prosecuting USA Attorney, Ken Fimberg/Scott, the Department of Justices stated findings and plea agreement with Rockwell were heavily contested by its own, 23-member special grand jury. Press leaks on both sides—members of the DOJ and the grand jury—occurred in violation of secrecy regarding grand jury information, a federal crime punishable by a prison sentence. The public contest led to USA Congressional oversight committee hearings chaired by Congressman Howard Wolpe, which issued subpoenas to DOJ principals despite several instances of DOJs refusal to comply. The hearings, whose findings include that the Justice Department had "bargained away the truth", ultimately still did not fully reveal to the public the special grand jury&#39;s report, which remains sealed by the DOJ courts.</p><br>
<p>The special grand jury report was nonetheless leaked to Westword. According to its subsequent publications, the Rocky Flats special grand jury had compiled indictments charging three DOE officials and five Rockwell employees with environmental crimes. The grand jury also wrote a report, intended for the publics consumption per their charter, lambasting the conduct of DOE and Rocky Flats contractors for "engaging in a continuing campaign of distraction, deception and dishonesty" and noted that Rocky Flats, for many years, had discharged pollutants, hazardous materials and radioactive matter into nearby creeks and Broomfields and Westminster&#39;s water supplies.</p><br>
<p>The DOE itself, in a study released in December of the year prior to the FBI raid, had called Rocky Flats&#39; ground water the single greatest environmental hazard at any of its nuclear facilities.</p><br>
<h4>Withheld records</h4><br>
<p>Court records from the grand jury proceeding on Rocky Flats have been sealed for a number of years. The Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, which govern federal grand jury proceedings, explicitly require grand jury proceedings to be kept secret unless otherwise provided by the Rules. Rocky Flats&#39; secret grand jury proceedings were not unique.</p><br>
<p>However, some activists dispute the reasons for records confidentiality: Dr. Leroy Brown, a Boulder scientist, retired FBI Special Agent Jon Lipsky,</p><br>
<p>Former grand jury foreman McKinley chronicles his experiences in the 2004 book he co-authored with attorney Caron Balkany, The Ambushed Grand Jury, which begins with an open letter to the USA Congress from Special Agent Lipsky:</p><br>
<h3>1990s</h3><br>
<p>Rockwell International was replaced by EG&G as primary contractor for the Rocky Flats plant. EG&G began an aggressive work safety and cleanup plan for the site that included construction of a system to remove contamination from the groundwater of the site. The Sierra Club vs. Rockwell case was decided in favor of the Sierra Club. The ruling directed Rocky Flats to manage plutonium residues as hazardous waste.</p><br>
<p>In 1991, an interagency agreement between DOE, the Colorado Department of Health, and the EPA outlined multiyear schedules for environmental restoration studies and remediation activities. DOE released a report that advocated downsizing the plant&#39;s production into a more streamlined facility. Due to the fall of the Soviet Union, production of most of the systems at Rocky Flats was no longer needed, leaving only the W88 warhead triggers.</p><br>
<p>In 1992, due to an order by President G.H.W. Bush, production of submarine-based missiles using the W88 trigger was discontinued, leading to the layoff of 4,500 employees at the plant; 4,000 others were retained for long-term cleanup of the facility. The Rocky Flats Plant Transition Plan outlined the environmental restoration process. The DOE announced that 61 lb of plutonium lined the exhaust ductwork in six buildings on the site.</p><br>
<p>Starting in 1993, weapons-grade plutonium began to be shipped to the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Savannah River Site.</p><br>
<p>In 1994 the site was renamed the Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site, reflecting the changed nature of the site from weapon production to environmental cleanup and restoration. The cleanup effort was contracted to the Kaiser-Hill Company, which proposed the release of 4,100 acre of the buffer zone for public access.</p><br>
<p>In 1998, the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment&#39;s Cancer Registry conducted an independent study of cancer rates in areas around the Rocky Flats Site. Data showed no pattern of increased cancers tied to Rocky Flats.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the remainder of the 1990s and into the 2000s, cleanup of contaminated sites and dismantling of contaminated buildings continued with the waste materials being shipped to the Nevada Test Site, the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in New Mexico, and the Envirocare company facility in Utah, which is now EnergySolutions.</p><br>
<h3>2000s</h3><br>
<p>In 2001, Congress passed the Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge Act. In July 2007, the USA Department of Energy transferred nearly 4,000 acre of land on the Rocky Flats site to the USA Fish and Wildlife Service to establish the Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge. Surveys of the site reveal 630 species of vascular plants, 76% of which are native. Herds of elk are commonly seen on the site. However, the DOE retained the central area of the site, the Central Operable Unit.</p><br>
<p>The last contaminated building was removed and the last weapons-grade plutonium was shipped out in 2003, ending the cleanup based on a modified cleanup agreement. The modified agreement required a higher level of cleanup in the first 3 ft of soil in exchange for not having to remove any contamination below that point unless it posed a chance of migrating to the surface or contaminating the groundwater. About half of the 800 buildings previously existing on the site had been dismantled by early December 2004.</p><br>
<p>The site is contaminated with residual plutonium due to several industrial fires that occurred on the site and other inadvertent releases caused by wind at a waste storage area. The other major contaminant is carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). Both of these substances affected areas adjacent to the site. In addition, there were small releases of beryllium and tritium, as well as dioxin from incineration.</p><br>
<p>Cleanup was declared complete on October 13, 2005. About 1,300 acre of the original site, the former industrial area, remains under USA DOE Office of Legacy Management control for ongoing environmental monitoring and remediation. On March 14, 2007, DOE, EPA, and CDPHE entered into the Rocky Flats Legacy Management Agreement (RFLMA). The agreement establishes the regulatory framework for implementing the final remedy for the Rocky Flats site and ensuring the protection of human health and the environment.</p><br>
<p>In September 2010, after a 20-year legal battle, the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed a $926 million award in a class-action lawsuit against Dow Chemical and Rockwell International. The three-judge panel said that the jury reached its decision on faulty instructions that incorrectly stated the law. The appeals court tossed the jury verdict and sent the case back to the District Court. According to the Appellate Court, the owners of 12,000 properties in the class-action area had not proved their properties were damaged or that they suffered bodily injury from plutonium that blew onto their properties.</p><br>
<p>In response to historic and ongoing reports of health issues by people who live and lived near Rocky Flats, an online health survey was launched in May 2016 by Metropolitan State University, Rocky Flats Downwinders, and other local universities and health agencies to survey thousands of Coloradans who lived east of the Rocky Flats plant while it was operational.</p><br>
<p>On May 19, 2016, a $375 million settlement was reached over claims by more than 15,000 nearby homeowners that plutonium releases from the plant risked their health and devalued their property. This settlement ended a 26-year legal battle between residents and the two corporations that ran the Rocky Flats Plant, Dow Chemical and Rockwell International, for the Department of Energy.</p><br>
<p>June 2014 marked a quarter century since the historic FBI and EPA raid of the Rocky Flats plant. A 3-day weekend of events from Friday, June 6 through Sunday, June 8 took place at the Arvada Center for the Arts, "Rocky Flats Then and Now: 25 Years After the Raid". Panel discussions covered various aspects of the Rocky Flats raid and its aftermath. On display were historical photographs and artifacts, as well as Rocky Flats-inspired art.</p><br>
<p>Originally there were a total of 240 temples standing in Prambanan. The Prambanan Temple Compound consist of:</p><br>
<p>3 Trimurti temples: three main temples dedicated to Shiva, Visnu, and Brahma</p><br>
<p>3 Vahana temples: three temples in front of Trimurti temples dedicated to the vahana of each gods; Nandi, Garuda, and Hamsa</p><br>
<p>2 Apit temples: two temples located between the rows of Trimurti and Vahana temples on north and south side</p><br>
<p>4 Kelir temples: four small shrines located on 4 cardinal directions right beyond the 4 main gates of inner zone</p><br>
<p>4 Patok temples: four small shrines located on 4 corners of inner zone</p><br>
<p>224 Pervara temples: hundreds of temples arranged in 4 concentric square rows; numbers of temples from inner row to outer row are: 44, 52, 60, and 68</p><br>
<p>The Prambanan compound also known as Rara Jonggrang complex, named after the popular legend of Rara Jonggrang. There were once 240 temples standing in this Shivaite temple complex, either big or small. Today, all of 8 main temples and 8 small shrines in the inner zone are reconstructed, but only 2 out of the original 224 pervara temples are renovated. The majority of them have deteriorated; what is left are only scattered stones. The Prambanan temple complex consists of three zones; first the outer zone, second the middle zone that contains hundreds of small temples, and third the holiest inner zone that contains eight main temples and eight small shrines.</p><br>
<p>The Hindu temple complex at Prambanan is based on a square plan that contains a total of three zone yards, each of which is surrounded by four walls pierced by four large gates. The outer zone is a large space marked by a rectangular wall. The outermost walled perimeter, which originally measured about 390 metres per side, was oriented in the northeast-southwest direction. However, except for its southern gate, not much else of this enclosure has survived down to the present. The original function is unknown; possibilities are that it was a sacred park, or priests&#39; boarding school (ashram). The supporting buildings for the temple complex were made from organic material; as a consequence no remains occur.</p><br>
<h3>Shiva temple</h3><br>
<p>The inner zone or central compound is the holiest among the three zones. It is the square elevated platform surrounded by a square stone wall with stone gates on each four cardinal points. This holiest compound is assembled of eight main shrines or candi. The three main shrines, called Trimurti ("three forms"), are dedicated to the three Gods: Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Keeper, and Shiva the Destroyer.</p><br>
<p>The Shiva temple is the tallest and largest structure in Prambanan Loro Jonggrang complex; it measures 47 metres tall and 34 metres wide. The main stairs are located on the eastern side. The eastern gate of Shiva temple is flanked by two small shrines, dedicated to guardian gods, Mahakala and Nandhisvara. The Shiva temple is encircled with galleries adorned with bas-reliefs telling the story of Ramayana carved on the inner walls of the balustrades. To follow the story accurately, visitors must enter from the east side and began to perform pradakshina or circumambulating clockwise. The bas-reliefs of Ramayana continue to the Brahma temple galleries.</p><br>
<p>The Shiva shrine is located at the center and contains five chambers, four small chambers in every cardinal direction and one bigger main chamber in the central part of the temple. The east chamber connects to the central chamber that houses the largest temple in Prambanan, a three-metre high statue of Shiva Mahadeva (the Supreme God). The statue bears Lakçana (attributes or symbol) of Shiva such as skull and sickle (crescent) at the crown, and third eye on the forehead; also four hands that holds Shiva&#39;s symbols: prayer beads, feather duster, and trisula (trident). Some historians believe that the depiction of Shiva as Mahadeva was also meant to personify king Balitung as the reincarnation of Shiva. So, when he died, a temple was built to commemorate him as Shiva. The statue of Shiva stands on a lotus pad on a Yoni pedestal that bears the carving of Nāga serpents on the north side of the pedestal.</p><br>
<p>The other three smaller chambers contain statues of Hindu Gods related to Shiva: his consort Durga, the rishi Agastya, and Ganesha, his son. A statue of Agastya occupies the south chamber, the west chamber houses the statue of Ganesha, while the north chamber contains the statue of Durga Mahisasuramardini depicting Durga as the slayer of the Bull demon. The shrine of Durga is also called the temple of Rara Jonggrang (Javanese: slender virgin), after a Javanese legend of princess Rara Jonggrang.</p><br>
<h3>Brahma and Vishnu temples</h3><br>
<p>The two other main shrines are those of Vishnu on the north side of the Shiva shrine, and the one of Brahma on the south. Both temples face east and each contain only one large chamber, each dedicated to respected gods; Brahma temple contains the statue of Brahma and Vishnu temple houses the statue of Vishnu. Brahma and Vishnu temple measures 20 metres wide and 33 metres tall.</p><br>
<h3>Vahana temples</h3><br>
<p>The other three shrines in front of the three main temples are dedicated to the vehicles (vahana) of the respective gods – the bull Nandi for Shiva, the sacred swan Hamsa for Brahma, and Vishnu&#39;s Kite Garuda. Precisely in front of the Shiva temple is the Nandi temple, which contains a statue of the Nandi bull. Next to it, there are also other statues, the statue of Chandra the god of the moon and Surya the god of the sun. Chandra stands on his carriage pulled by 10 horses, the statue of Surya also stands on a carriage pulled by 7 horses. Facing the Brahma temple is the temple of Hamsa or Angsa. The chamber of this temple contains no statue, but it seems likely that there was once a statue of the sacred swan. In front of the Vishnu temple is the temple dedicated to Garuda. However, just like the Hamsa temple, the Garuda temple contains no statue, but probably once contained the statue of Garuda. Garuda holds an important role for Indonesia, as it serves as the national symbol of Indonesia, and also as the name of the airline Garuda Indonesia.</p><br>
<h3>Apit temples and smaller shrines</h3><br>
<p>Between these rows of the main temple, on the north and south side, stand two Candi Apit temples. Apit in Javanese means "flank". It refers to the position of the two temples that flanked the inner courtyard on the north and south sides. The room inside the Apit temples is now empty. It is not clear to which deities these Apit temples were dedicated. However, examining the southern Apit temple bas-reliefs on the outer wall, a female deity is depicted, most probably Sarasvati, the Shakti (consort) of Brahma. Considering the Hindu pantheon represented in Prambanan temples, it is possible that the southern Apit temple was dedicated to Sarasvati, while the northern Apit temple was dedicated to Lakshmi.</p><br>
<p>Beside these 8 main temples, there are also 8 smaller shrines; 4 Candi Kelir on four cardinal directions of the entrance, and 4 Candi Patok on four corners of the inner zone. Kelir in Javanese means "screen", especially referring to wayang kulit, fabric screen. It refers to a structure that obstructs the main cardinal entry of gopura. It is similar to aling-aling in Balinese architecture. Patok in Javanese means "peg". It refers to the shrine location at the four corners of the inner compound.</p><br>
<h3>Pervara temples</h3><br>
<p>The two walled perimeters that surround the remaining two yards to the interior are oriented to the four cardinal points. The second yard&#39;s walled perimeter, which measures about 225 metres per side, surrounds a terraced area that consists of four rows containing 44, 52, 60, and 68 pervara temples. Respectively, each has a height of 14 metres and measures 6×6 metres at the base, or 224 structures in total. The sixteen temples located at the corners of the rows face two directions; the remaining 208 structures open to only one of the four cardinal directions.</p><br>
<p>The middle zone consists of four rows of 224 individual small shrines. There are great numbers of these temples, but most of them are still in ruins and only some have been reconstructed. These concentric rows of temples were made in an identical design. Each row towards the center is slightly elevated. These shrines are called "Candi Perwara", guardian or complementary temples, the additional buildings of the main temple. Some believed it was offered to the king as a sign of submission. The Perwara are arranged in four rows around the central temples. Some believed it had something to do with four castes, made according to the rank of the people allowed to enter them; the row nearest to the central compound was accessible to the priests only, the other three were reserved for the nobles, the knights, and the simple people respectively. While another believed that the four rows of Perwara had nothing to do with four castes, it was just simply made as a meditation place for priests and as a worship place for devotees.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The architecture of Prambanan temple follows the typical Hindu architecture traditions based on Vastu Shastra. The temple design incorporated mandala temple plan arrangements and also the typical high towering spires of Hindu temples. Prambanan was originally named Shivagrha and dedicated to the god Shiva. The temple was designed to mimic Meru, the holy mountain, the abode of Hindu gods, and the home of Shiva. The whole temple complex is a model of the Hindu universe according to Hindu cosmology and the layers of Loka.</p><br>
<p>Just like Borobudur, Prambanan also recognizes the hierarchy of the temple zones, spanned from the less holy to the holiest realms. Each Hindu and Buddhist concept has its own terms, but the concepts are essentially identical. Either the compound site plan (horizontally) or the temple structure (vertically) consists of three zones:</p><br>
<p>Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans, animals also demons. Where humans are still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of life. The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples is symbolized the realm of bhurloka.</p><br>
<p>Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, occupied by rishis, ascetics, and lesser gods. People here begin to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard and the body of each temple symbolizes the realm of bhuvarloka.</p><br>
<p>Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm, reserved for the gods. Also known as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temple symbolizes the realm of svarloka. The roof of Prambanan temples are adorned and crowned with ratna (sanskrit: jewel), the shape of Prambanan ratna took the altered form of vajra that represent diamonds. In ancient Java temple architecture, ratna is the Hindu counterpart of the Buddhist stupa, and served as the temple&#39;s pinnacle.</p><br>
<p>During the restoration, a well which contains a pripih (stone casket) was discovered under the center of the Shiva temple. The main temple has a well 5.75 m deep in which a stone casket was found on top a pile of charcoal, earth, and remains of burned animal bones. Sheets of gold leaves with the inscription Varuna (god of the sea) and Parvata (god of the mountains) were found here. The stone casket contained sheets of copper, charcoal, ashes, earth, 20 coins, jewels, glass, pieces of gold and silver leaves, seashells and 12 gold leaves (which were cut in the shapes of a turtle, Nāga serpent, padma, altar, and an egg).</p><br>
<h2>Reliefs</h2><br>
<h3>Ramayana and Bhagavata Purana</h3><br>
<p>The temple is adorned with panels of narrative bas-reliefs telling the story of the Hindu epic Ramayana and Bhagavata Purana. The narrative bas-relief panels were carved along the inner balustrades wall on the gallery around the three main temples.</p><br>
<p>The narrative panels on the balustrade read from left to right. The story starts from the east entrance where visitors turn left and move around the temple gallery in a clockwise direction. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right. The story of Ramayana starts on Shiva temple balustrade and continues to Brahma temple. On the balustrades in Vishnu temple there is series of bas-relief panels depicting the stories of lord Krishna from Bhagavata Purana.</p><br>
<p>The bas-relief of Ramayana illustrate how Sita, the wife of Rama, is abducted by Ravana. The monkey king Hanuman brings his army to help Rama and rescue Sita. This story is also shown by the Ramayana Ballet, regularly performed at full moon at Trimurti open-air theatre on the west side of the illuminated Prambanan complex.</p><br>
<h3>Lokapalas, Brahmins and Devatas</h3><br>
<p>On the other side of the narrative panels, the temple wall along the gallery was adorned with statues and reliefs of devatas and brahmin sages. The figures of lokapalas, the celestial guardians of directions, can be found in Shiva temple. The brahmin sage editors of veda were carved on Brahma temple wall, while in Vishnu temple the figures of male deities devatas are flanked by two apsaras.</p><br>
<h3>Prambanan panel: Lion and Kalpataru</h3><br>
<p>The lower outer wall of these temples was adorned with a row of small niches containing an image of sinha (a lion) flanked by two panels depicting bountiful kalpataru (kalpavriksha) trees. These wish-fulfilling sacred trees, according to Hindu-Buddhist belief, are flanked on either side by kinnaras or animals, such as pairs of birds, deer, sheep, monkeys, horses, elephants etc. The pattern of lion in niche flanked by kalpataru trees is typical in the Prambanan temple compound, thus it is called a "Prambanan panel".</p><br>
<h2>The Rara Jonggrang legend</h2><br>
<p>The popular legend of Rara Jonggrang is what connects the site of the Ratu Boko Palace, the origin of the Durga statue in the northern cell/chamber of the main shrine, and the origin of the Sewu temple complex nearby.</p><br>
<p>The legend tells the story about Prince Bandung Bondowoso, who fell in love with Princess Rara Jonggrang, the daughter of King Boko. But the princess rejected his proposal of marriage because Bandung Bondowoso had killed King Boko and ruled her kingdom.</p><br>
<p>Bandung Bondowoso insisted on the union, and finally Rara Jonggrang was forced to agree to a union in marriage, but she posed one impossible condition: Bandung must build her a thousand temples in only one night.</p><br>
<p>The Prince entered into meditation and conjured up a multitude of spirits (demons) from the earth. Helped by supernatural beings, he succeeded in building 999 temples. When the prince was about to complete the condition, the princess woke her palace maids and ordered the women of the village to begin pounding rice and set a fire in the east of the temple, attempting to make the prince and the spirits believe that the sun was about to rise. As the cocks began to crow, fooled by the light and the sounds of daybreak, the supernatural helpers fled back into the ground. The prince was furious about the trick and in revenge he cursed Rara Jonggrang, turning her to stone. She became the last and the most beautiful of the thousand statues. According to the traditions, the unfinished thousandth temple created by the demons become the Sewu temple compounds nearby (Sewu means "thousands" in Javanese), and the Princess is the image of Durga in the north cell of the Shiva temple at Prambanan, which is still known as Rara Jonggrang or Slender Virgin.</p><br>
<h2>Other temples around Prambanan</h2><br>
<p>The Prambanan Plain spans between the southern slopes of Merapi volcano in the north and the Sewu mountain range in the south, near the present border Yogyakarta province and Klaten Regency, Central Java. Apart from the Lara Jonggrang complex, the Prambanan plain, valley and hills around it is the location of some of the earliest Buddhist temples in Indonesia. Not far to the north are found the ruins of Bubrah temple, Lumbung temple, and Sewu temple. Further east is found Plaosan temple. To the west are found Kalasan temple and Sari temple, and further to the west is Sambisari temple. While to the south the Ratu Boko compound is on higher ground. The discoveries of archaeological sites scattered only a few miles away suggest that this area was an important religious, political, and urban center.</p><br>
<p>North of the Lara Jongrang complex</p><br>
<p>Lumbung. Buddhist-style, consisting of one main temple surrounded by 16 smaller ones.</p><br>
<p>Candi Bubrah. Buddhist temple still in ruins.</p><br>
<p>Sewu. Buddhist temple complex, older than Roro Jonggrang. A main sanctuary surrounded by many smaller temples. Well preserved guardian statues, replicas of which stand in the central courtyard at the Jogja Kraton.</p><br>
<p>Candi Morangan. Hindu temple complex buried several meters under volcanic ashes, located northwest from Prambanan.</p><br>
<p>Candi Plaosan. Buddhist, probably 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for his Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of Boddhisatva and Tara. Also rows of slender stupas.</p><br>
<p>South of the Lara Jongrang complex</p><br>
<p>Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone enclosure, all located on top of the hill.</p><br>
<p>Sajiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and staircase are decorated with animal fables.</p><br>
<p>Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof.</p><br>
<p>Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the slope of the hill.</p><br>
<p>Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a large lingam and yoni.</p><br>
<p>Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing different poses and expressions.</p><br>
<p>West of the Lara Jongrang complex</p><br>
<p>Kalasan. 8th-century Buddhist temple built in commemoration of the marriage of a king and his princess bride, ornamented with finely carved reliefs.</p><br>
<p>Sari. Once a sanctuary for Buddhist priests. 8th century. Nine stupas at the top with two rooms beneath, each believed to be places for priests to meditate.</p><br>
<p>Sambisari. 9th-century Hindu temple discovered in 1966, once buried 6.5 metres under volcanic ash. The main temple houses a linga and yoni, and the wall surround it displayed the images of Agastya, Durga, and Ganesha.</p><br>
<p>Gebang. A small Hindu temple discovered in 1937 located near the Yogyakarta northern ring-road. The temple displays the statue of Ganesha and interesting carving of faces on the roof section.</p><br>
<p>Candi Gana. Rich in statues, bas-reliefs and sculpted stones. Frequent representations of children or dwarfs with raised hands. Located in the middle of a housing complex. Under restoration since 1997.</p><br>
<p>Candi Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4m deep. Square base of main temple visible. Secondary temples not yet fully excavated.</p><br>
<h3>Gallery of reliefs</h3><br>
<h3>Gallery of Prambanan</h3><br>
